









Copyright N?_ 



COPYKIGICT DEPOSIT. 



THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE 

TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



REPORT TO THE AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE 

ASSOCIATION BY THE COMMITTEE 

ON INSTRUCTION 



CHARLES GROVE HAINES, Chairman 

J. LYNN BARNARD MABEL HILL 

EDGAR DAWSON FRANK E. HORACK 

WALTER L. FLEMING JAMES A. JAMES 



£3>ro fork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

All tights reserved 



3**1 



u> 



Pkt» 



Copyright, 19 16 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. 



NOV -9 J9I6 



)CU445580 



PREFACE 

Various national organizations are vitally interested in the 
effort to improve the teaching of government in the schools. 
The American Political Science Association is naturally one of 
the foremost among these and from the time of its formation 
has given special attention to methods of instruction in political 
science. As a result of the interest manifested in the first ses- 
sions of the Association a committee of five was appointed to 
investigate and report upon the teaching of government in 
secondary schools. The report of this committee and the con- 
clusions resulting therefrom mark an important stage in the 
movement to improve civic instruction. To supplement the 
work of the committee of five and to extend the scope of its 
investigations it was voted at the annual business meeting of 
the Association held at Buffalo in December, 191 1, "that a 
committee of seven members be appointed to consider the meth- 
ods of teaching and studying government now pursued in Amer- 
ican schools, colleges and universities, and to suggest means 
of enlarging and improving such instruction." The following 
members were appointed by the President to constitute this 
committee: James A. James, Professor of History, Northwestern 
University; Mabel Hill, Associate Director Garland School, 
Boston, Massachusetts; Frank E. Horack, Professor of Political 
Science, State University of Iowa; Edgar Dawson, Professor of 
Political Science, Hunter College, New York City; Walter L. 
Fleming, Professor of History, Louisiana State University, J. 
Lynn Barnard, Professor of History and Government, School 
of Pedagogy, Philadelphia; and Charles Grove Haines, Professor 
of Government, University of Texas. 



vi PREFACE 

The committee first prepared a survey of the activities of 
other organizations which are interested in civic instruction. 
Among such organizations particular attention was given to 
the discussions and reports of the American Historical Asso- 
ciation, the National Municipal League and the National Edu- 
cation Association, as well as the report on secondary schools 
by the committee of five of the American Political Science Asso- 
ciation. After completing this survey it was decided by the 
committee to secure information through: (i) an investigation 
of courses in political science offered in colleges and universities; 
(2) an inquiry regarding courses and methods of instruction in 
elementary and secondary schools; (3) a consideration of the 
aid and encouragement given to instruction in government by 
state departments of education and other organizations and 
societies. Preliminary reports dealing with instruction in col- 
leges and universities were presented at the annual meetings of 
the Association in Washington, December, 1913 and in Chicago, 
December, 1914. 

At the meetings of the committee held during the sessions 
of the Association in Washington, December, 1913 it was decided 
to continue working along the following lines: first, to pursue 
the investigation of the teaching of political science in colleges 
and universities in order to obtain a more complete report; 
second, to report upon the progress recently made in the teach- 
ing of government in secondary schools; and third, to prepare 
for teachers concrete suggestions as to courses and methods 
of instruction to be submitted along with the proposals of the 
committee relative to elementary and secondary schools. On 
account of the difficulties involved in securing a meeting of 
the committee at a time and place convenient to all members, 
group conferences were held in Washington, D. C, New York 
City, and Chicago. Through these conferences and through 
the submission in advance of all proposed recommendations 
a full discussion has been secured on all phases of the report 



PREFACE vii 

and a unanimous approval is accorded by the members of the 
committee to the recommendations offered. Moreover, one 
session and two conferences during the annual meetings 1913-15 
were devoted to the presentation and discussion of various 
phases of the report. 

The committee aims to offer primarily such information and 
data as are available relative to the present status of instruction 
in government with some recommendations and suggestions to 
teachers. Its report is presented with a view to aid in the 
process of reconstruction which is now well on its way as to the 
teaching of government in the schools. 

In the pursuance of investigations and in the collection of 
data the committee is under great obligations for assistance re- 
ceived from many instructors who prepared reports on local con- 
ditions and from state committees comprised of teachers and 
administrators actively engaged in public school work. To the 
Honorable P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education, acknowl- 
edgment is also due for the privilege of sending circulars to sec- 
ondary schools and colleges through the medium of the Bureau 
of Education. Naturally, in a report of such an extensive char- 
acter dealing with many controverted problems of instruction 
the Association is not committed to all of the expressions of 
opinion and suggestions herein contained. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
RECENT PROGRESS IN THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

PAGE 

I. Stages in the Advancement of Civic Instruction i 

i. Study of the Constitution 2 

2. The Deductive Method 2 

3. Community Civics 5 

II. Efforts to Improve the Teaching of Government .... 7 

1. National Education Association 8 

2. American Historical Association 11 

3. National Municipal League 18 

4. American Political Science Association 21 

III. The Purpose of Instruction in Government 27 

1. Aims of Civic Instruction 27 

2. Civics for the Education of the Electorate 28 

3. Civics and Social Service 31 

4. Danger in Civics Teaching 32 

IV. Methods, Materials and Devices 34 

1. Ways of Rendering Instruction Practical 35 

2. The Community Survey 39 

3. Reference Library on Civic Affairs 40 

4. State and National Government 42 

5. Thoroughness 44 

PART II 

REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS 

ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

I. Report of the Committee of Seven in Co-operation 

with the Bureau of Education 46 

II. Some data on the Training of Teachers 65 



X CONTENTS 

PART III 
COURSES OF STUDY 

PAGE 

Suggestions as to Courses of Study and Methods of 

Approach to the Study of Government. .* 77 

1. Suggestions for Civic Topics in Elementary Grades . . 78 

2. Community Civics for Junior High School 82 

3. Suggestions for a course in Civics for Senior High 

School 100 

4. Bibliographies for Teachers and School Libraries. ... n 1 

A. Some References on Methods of Teaching. ... in 

B. Bibliographical Suggestions for Teachers 119 

C. Bureau of Reference for Study of Civic Affairs 133 

PART IV 

REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE IN 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 

I. Preliminary Statement 135 

II. Table of Courses in Political Science in Colleges and 

Universities 141 

III. Observations and Conclusions 184 

1. Inadequate Provisions for Government Instruction 184 

2. The Function of College Instruction 187 

3. Attendance in Courses 190 

4. Textbooks 192 

5. Methods of Instruction 193 

6. Types of Courses 195 

7. Suggestions for the Improvement of Instruction. . . . 196 

IV. Recommendations for the Improvement of College 

Instruction 198 

APPENDIX 

REPORTS OF STATE COMMITTEES ON THE TEACHING OF 
CIVICS IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

I. Members of State Committees and State Representa- 
tives Selected to Aid the Committee on Instruction 226 



CONTENTS 



XI 



PAGE 

II. Report on the Teaching of Civics 231 

1. Alabama 231 

2. Arkansas 233 

3. California 234 

4. Colorado 238 

5. Georgia 239 

6. Illinois 240 

7. Iowa 244 

8. Kentucky 244 

9. Maine 246 

10. Maryland 248 

11. Massachusetts 251 

12. Michigan 255 

13. New Hampshire 258 

14. New York 260 

15. North Dakota 264 

16. Ohio 264 

17. Virginia 266 

18. Washington . „ 268 

19. West Virginia 274 

20. Wisconsin 279 



THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



PART I 

RECENT PROGRESS IN THE TEACHING OF 
GOVERNMENT 

RELATING CHIEFLY TO INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY AND 
SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

It is difficult to determine the exact time at which instruc- 
tion in civil government was begun in the public schools. One 
of the first evidences of an interest in the study of the subject 
is to be found in the plea for civic instruction before the National 
Education Association in 1859. Information as to the nature 
of the course offered at this time is indefinite. It seems that the 
first result of the special plea for the study of civil government 
was the introduction of a course devoted to the Constitution of 
the United States. This course at first involved merely a reading 
of the Constitution with general comments on the special fea- 
tures of the fundamental law. 

I. Stages in the Advancement of Civic Instruction. 

Since the meagre beginning made in the third quarter of 
the nineteenth century, the teaching of civics has progressed 
through three rather well marked stages: — 

1. Study of the Constitution. 

2. The Deductive Method. 

3. Community Civics. 



2 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

i. Study of the Constitution. 

Civic instruction, which was at first based primarily upon 
the Constitution, resulted in the preparation of certain man- 
uals taking up the Constitution clause by clause. This type 
of manual was the natural outcome of that veneration for our 
national charter which has won both admiration and caustic 
comments from foreign critics. It is undoubtedly true that a 
spirit of veneration for American institutions and for the prin- 
ciples embodied in federal and state governments was thus 
fostered. Although no very exact or useful knowledge of prac- 
tical political affairs resulted from this type of course, it never- 
theless marked the first step in anything like definite instruction 
in government. The influence of this period of civic instruction 
is still apparent in certain texts which are in use in the schools 
of some of the states. Fortunately, the scope of instruction has 
been broadened and texts which cover a wider range of matters 
of general interest to the citizen have rapidly replaced all but a 
few of the former constitution manuals. 

2. Deductive Method. 

The formal presentation of the provisions of the federal 
Constitution was soon expanded into a more comprehensive 
plan of course involving also a consideration of the state 
constitution and including in most cases a list of officers, 
federal, state and county. Although changed in its scope, this 
course was very similar to the earlier constitution study. It was 
based upon a deductive method, beginning with the provisions 
of the constitution and going on to the names, terms, salaries and 
the formal functions of these officers as determined by law. The 
method ordinarily pursued required chiefly an exercise of the 
memory in learning sections and divisions of constitutions and 
the names, duties and salaries of public officers. Just as the old 
constitution manual has remained despite the many evidences 
of change and progress in civic training, so the deductive method 



RECENT PROGRESS 3 

is still retained by many who are trying to educate the young 
minds in the ways of citizenship by a memory process in the 
temporary accumulation of a host of facts which are fortunately 
soon forgotten. 

This method of instruction likewise dealt chiefly with the 
federal Constitution and government and gave only an incidental 
and cursory consideration to state and local affairs. There was 
little or no effort to educate toward a citizenship in the com- 
munity surrounding the children by a study of the simpler and 
more interesting functions and responsibilities of the school, 
the home and the community. Those things which could be 
of the most general and distant interest were emphasized to 
the exclusion of the many matters of vital importance and 
local concern which affect profoundly political and social con- 
ditions of the community. Much attention was given to the 
President, Congress, the cabinet officers and their multifarious 
duties, a slightly less complete account of the state govern- 
ment, and a mere passing consideration to county officers and 
their legal duties. National affairs usually occupied the greater 
portion of the short time allotted, leaving opportunity for 
only passing reference to state and local matters. 

American History and Civil Government. 

On account of the close relationship between American his- 
tory and the civil government course based on a study of the 
federal Constitution an arrangement was eventually devised 
by which these two subjects were combined, especially in the 
high school curriculum. American history dealt largely with 
political and constitutional matters, and government was 
thought to be comprehended in the continuous evolution and 
unfolding of the federal fundamental law. There was thus 
evolved a combination course — American history and civics. 
Teachers began to adopt one of three methods of procedure: 
first, to announce a combined course but to give all of the time 






4 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

to history, on the theory that all that is worth while in govern- 
ment was of necessity comprehended within the scope of his- 
tory; second, to announce and offer the two in combination by 
means of a special elaboration of such topics as were deemed to 
be governmental in nature, this differing from the first only 
in that there was a tendency at least to give some separate con- 
sideration to government; third, the major part of the time was 
given to history, but a few periods ranging from a week to four 
or five weeks were given to a study of government. Under this 
plan an effort was sometimes made to deal briefly with the 
various divisions of government, federal and state. Such a 
plan offered an opportunity to the conscientious teacher to 
give at least a modest and not altogether futile introduction 
to the study of government. The arrangement might have 
proved fairly satisfactory except for the fact that as a rule the 
time for government was not definitely set apart and when the 
claims of the history outline were met there was not even enough 
time to give an introduction to government as a functioning or- 
ganization. A compromise was sometimes effected by which his- 
tory was given full time and the children were encouraged to be- 
gin their training in citizenship by reading, incidental to the 
course, a civics manual. It is needless to suggest the result. 
This condition has been gradually superseded either by an ar- 
rangement which gives three hours per week to American history 
and two hours to civics throughout the fourth year of the high 
school or by giving half of the year to each of the two subjects. 
The latter plan is growing in favor particularly in the schools of 
the South and West. 

No one would be so foolish as to propose to neglect the close 
relationship between history and civics. Nor would anyone 
attempt to deny that history and civics should be closely cor- 
related throughout the entire curriculum. It is only intended 
to emphasize here that civics comprises a content and method 
which cannot be treated adequately in connection with history, 



RECENT PROGRESS 5 

since the subject can no longer be regarded as simply a study 
of the constitution and framework of government in its historic 
development. 

If the public schools are to fulfill their function in a country 
where democratic theories and practices prevail, if they are to 
contribute to the development of civic intelligence, provision 
must be made in the elementary schools, in the secondary 
schools and in the colleges for thorough courses in the " co- 
operative functions of society," and above all to that organiza- 
tion in which these functions are concentrated and unified. 
In fact it is now coming to be recognized that instead of a meagre 
allowance of a week or two here or there in the school curricu- 
lum civic instruction must be placed on a par with such subjects 
as English and the natural sciences and be given prime considera- 
tion in the making of school programs. 1 That this consideration 
is already being given to the subject by progressive educators is 
evidenced in the interest manifested in a revised and vitalized 
study of social affairs under the designation community civics. 

3. Community Civics. 

The study of the constitution manuals, and the use of the de- 
ductive method have been slowly giving way to a form of course 
commonly referred to at this time as the new civics or com- 
munity civics. The new civics practically reverses the method 
of procedure which was formerly pursued. Instead of starting 
with officers and legal duties as outlined in constitutions and in 
statutes, the study begins with community needs and the meth- 
ods by which government satisfies these needs. It is based 
essentially upon the theory that those things which are near at 
home are of more vital importance and should receive consider- 
ation prior to those more remote and, as a rule, of less direct 

1 For a very able and suggestive discussion of the function which the public 
schools should perform in the United States consult Democracy's High 
School by Principal W. D. Lewis in the Riverside Educational Monographs. 



6 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

significance. The new civics comprises then a study of commu- 
nity functions and emphasizes rather the physiology of govern- 
ment than its anatomy or framework. It begins with the local 
environment — the immediate community in which the child 
lives and with which he comes in daily contact. And then from 
village or city activities the study reaches out to the wider func- 
tions of state and nation. The analysis of what the govern- 
ment is doing to protect health, life, property and social needs 
in every direction becomes more important than constitutional 
provisions. A knowledge and appreciation of what the govern- 
ment of a community is accomplishing to satisfy community 
needs, and government activities in their immediate touch 
upon the citizen, come in for consideration and study. 

On the other hand, the new civics does not necessarily result 
in a neglect of the study of constitutions and of governmental 
forms. All of the essential phases of organization may be re- 
tained in the new course. Constitutions, statutes, officers and 
their duties are merely approached from the standpoint of the 
functions which are being performed by the agents of govern- 
ment in any political unit. The natural steps are, first to raise 
the question, what methods are devised to protect the health, 
the life and the property of the community. The answer to 
these queries will lead, secondly, to the consideration of the 
functions of local and state officers as well as to the services 
rendered by the federal government. 

Thus, that portion which is of real value in the earlier form of 
civil government is retained. To be sure, some minor details 
are necessarily eliminated, but usually those which have no 
relation to citizenship, and it will be no loss to drop them from 
the courses now given in our public schools. Matters of detail 
such as the names of officers, the salaries received and the statu- 
tory provisions of official duties give but little indication of the 
part performed by government officials and they can be dis- 
pensed with, thus saving the energy of memorizing a mass of 



RECENT PROGRESS 7 

petty and useless stuff, immediately forgotten when the course 
is completed. Such facts as are necessary for the study of 
government functions can readily be rendered available in a 
reference manual which can be prepared for use along with the 
text-book. 

It is community civics and the group of ideas compre- 
hended therein that have resulted in a nationwide movement 
to reorganize the courses in government, to revise the methods 
of study and to vitalize a subject which has heretofore shown 
little promise of value either to the individual citizen or to the 
community. It is of interest to consider the efforts by which 
instruction in government is being revised and to trace the in- 
troduction into the schools of courses based upon the new con- 
tent and revised methods of instruction. 

II. Efforts to Improve the Teaching of Government. 

In considering the steps which have been taken along this 
line, it is necessary to note a surprising lack of interest in the 
subject on the part of many administrators and teachers in the 
public schools. The plea of no time for the study of civics 
has been so frequent and widespread that it might be supposed 
that the public schools have no interest in nor any relation what- 
ever to the state, its organs, activities and departments. To 
quote Dr. George Kerchensteiner, " Schools totally ignored 
the fact that while the economic conditions of the present day 
require a technical and commercial training from the worker, 
the social conditions imperatively demand for him a civic train- 
ing. In a word, it was forgotten that civics is at least as neces- 
sary an element in the syllabus of our schools as are drawing 
and arithmetic." * In contrast with this opinion it has been 
customary to dispose of the subject with the rather typical 
comment, — "If no class in civil government can be organized, 
let the teacher give some instruction in this line during general 

1 "Hygiene, Civics and Trade History." See pp. 38-39. 



8 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

exercises. Let us strive to teach an intelligent patriotism." 
There was time for Latin, history, geography, geometry, al- 
gebra, botany, and physics and for a number of other no less 
important and useful branches of study, but the common reply 
of many of those who prepared school programs was that no 
separate time could be found in the curriculum for the study 
of government. 

It was suggested occasionally that the public school itself 
and all that it is undertaking is the result of government and 
that school administrators were inclined to ignore this fact. 
It is the state that is giving life and being to the public school; 
it is the money of the state secured through its methods of taxa- 
tion that keeps the school going; it is the law of the state through 
which the school performs its functions, and it has been inti- 
mated that the school could not refuse to give some considera- 
tion to the organization which brought it into life and made 
possible its very existence. There was a protest that some time 
must be found in the school curriculum for the study of that 
most important of all social and political organizations — the 
state. And slowly time has been discovered. First a few weeks 
were allowed, then a few weeks more, and finally the importance 
of further study resulted in extending the time in both elemen- 
tary and secondary schools. An account of the developing ap- 
preciation of the vital need of civic instruction is to be found in 
the activity of the great national organizations interested in the 
reconstruction of our educational system and in the evidences 
of a recent trend toward the social viewpoint in industrial and 
political affairs. A brief survey of the activities of each of these 
national organizations will show the impetus given within recent 
years to the advancement of government instruction. 

i. National Education Association. 

The effort to improve instruction in the various fields of study 
in the secondary and elementary schools began in an organized 



RECENT PROGRESS g 

way through the interest and activities of the National Educa- 
tion Association. To be sure, the improvement of other subjects 
was begun very much earlier, and much more definite and 
effective results have been secured than in the teaching of 
civil government. Prior to 1893 the only interest manifested in 
the subject of civics is evidenced in an occasional address rel- 
ative to instruction in this field. A definite indication of an 
awakening on the part of teachers to the value of this subject 
is shown in the Madison conference on history, civil govern- 
ment, and economics. The conference was held in 1892. The 
report and conclusions of the conference were adopted by the 
committee of ten, and were issued by the Bureau of Education 
and reprinted later by the American Book Company. It was 
in this conference that for the first time the claims of the social 
sciences were brought to the attention of the educators of the 
nation. The program adopted included four years of history 
for the grammar school and four years for the high school. 
While the chief interest and emphasis in the report is on history, 
and the main contribution made by it resulted along the line 
of the improvement of history instruction, the subjects of civil 
government and economics also received some attention. On 
the former subject the report of the committee observed: 
" While they are of opinion that political economy should not 
be taught in secondary schools, they urge that in connection 
with United States history, civil government and commercial 
geography, instruction should be given in the most important 
economic topics. . . . The subject of civil government they 
would associate with both history and geography. 

"They would introduce it into the grammar school by means 
of oral lessons, and into the high school by means of a text-book 
with collateral reading and oral lessons. In the high school they 
believe that the study of civil government may be made com- 
parative — that is, that the American methods may be compared 
with foreign systems." 



io THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Later the Association showed its interest in civics in the re- 
port of the committee of twelve on rural schools. This report 
goes somewhat further in its recommendations and provides for 
a normal training course with one half year of United States 
history and civil government, and among the recommendations 
it is suggested that "the introduction of such studies as will 
have a tendency to connect the school and the home, especially 
those having direct bearing upon the everyday life of the com- 
munity, is to be especially commended." This brief recommen- 
dation may be said to indicate the tendency to direct atten- 
tion to the study of community functions, which is the great 
feature of the new civics. With the exception of an occasional 
place on the annual program and some incidental discussions 
fostered by the Association, the subject of civics received very 
little consideration for a period of more than ten years. It was 
not until the committee on articulation of high school and col- 
lege was appointed and its report to the Association in July, 
191 1, was rendered, that civics again received serious considera- 
tion. The committee, as is well knowii, recommended that the 
satisfactory completion of a well-planned high school course 
should be accepted as preparation for college. In the definition 
of a well-planned high school course, it was proposed that there 
should be included at least three units of English, one unit of 
social science (including history), and one unit of natural 
science. With regard to the work in social science, it was recom- 
mended: (1) that history should always be taught so as to func- 
tion in a better understanding of modern events and current 
movements; (2) that economics should be encouraged because 
economic discussions are paramount, and ignorance of economic 
principles is appalling; and (3) that every high school student 
should be given a practical knowledge of affairs in his own 
community, political, industrial and philanthropic, of the basic 
principles of state and national politics, and of movements for 
social reform and international peace. 



RECENT PROGRESS n 

A more recent effort to aid in the process of reorganization of 
courses in civics has been that of the national commission 
chosen several years ago for the purpose of reorganizing the 
entire curriculum of secondary schools. Appointed as an out- 
growth of the movement on articulation between high school 
and college, this committee has arranged for a subcommittee 
on social studies, which is working in cooperation with the 
Bureau of Education and has presented a preliminary report 
in which the following proposed outline for five units of social 
studies is offered: 

i. Community Civics and Survey of Vocations. 

2. European History to 1600 or 1700 (including English and 
Colonial Amerian History). 

3. European History since 1600 or 1700 (including contem- 
porary civilization). 

4. United States History since 1760 (including current 
events). 

5. Economics and Civic Theory and Practice. 

Recently this committee has aided in the preparation of a 
syllabus for community civics to be used in the junior high school, 
and anticipates the preparation of a similar syllabus for an ad- 
vanced course in social science for fourth year high school. As 
the work is carried on with the cooperation of the Bureau of 
Education and the National Education Association, its conclu- 
sions and recommendations will have a great influence upon the 
public schools, and consequently upon the entire educational 
system of the country. 

2. American Historical Association. 

One of the first organizations to offer suggestions relative 
to the teaching of civics as well as that of history was the 
American Historical Association. The recommendations of 
the Association are embodied in the following reports: (a) 
Report of Committee of Seven, 1898; (b) Report of the Com- 



12 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

mittee of Eight, 1909; (c) Report of the Committee of Five, 
1911. 

It has already been indicated that the first step toward the 
improvement of the teaching of history and government was 
taken in connection with the Madison Conference which was 
largely directed by leaders interested in the subject of history. 
The report of this Conference was a mere prelude to the more 
systematic and effective work begun and completed through a 
series of very active committees appointed by the Association. 

(a) Report of Committee of Seven. 

One of the most important committees covering the field of 
history was the committee of seven appointed by the American 
Historical Association in 1896 and rendering its report in 1898. 
The recommendations included therein are familiar to all 
secondary school teachers and administrators. It is only neces- 
sary to note in passing the chief conclusions of the committee: 
a full four years' course of history and civil government is 
recommended in the following arrangement: first year, ancient 
history; second year, mediaeval and modern European history; 
third year, English history; fourth year, American history and 
civil government. 

This report has been widely accepted and followed in planning 
the programs of secondary schools. It has resulted in a great 
increase in the time given to history and in a marked improve- 
ment of methods of teaching. Its effect upon the teaching of 
civics has been rather indirect and incidental, but it has un- 
doubtedly encouraged the tendency to combine civil govern- 
ment with American history and has consequently tended to 
delay somewhat the movement favorable to the introduction 
of the study of civics as a separate and independent course. 
In so far as the committee report emphasized the close relation 
between history and civics and provided the basis for civics 
in the study of the development of English and American in- 



RECENT PROGRESS 13 

stitutions, the effect has been salutary. On the other hand, the 
report of the committee has been frequently interpreted in such 
a way as to be detrimental to the development of anything like 
an effective course in civics. Where these recommendations 
were carried out so as to bring about the introduction of a year's 
course in American history, with only an incidental considera- 
tion to the problems of government based usually upon the 
supplementary reading of some text on civil government, the 
effect of the report has not been favorable to the development 
of a proper type of civic instruction. In any comment on the 
report of this and other committees of the American Historical 
Association, it must always be remembered that these commit- 
tees were primarily interested in the study of history and they 
could not be expected to give special consideration and emphasis *> 
to instruction in government. It remains for those interested 
and engaged in the teaching of government to render similar 
aid and direction to teachers. 

(6) The Committee of Eight. 

In the report of the committee of eight relative to elementary 
school instruction the subject of civics also received considera- 
tion. The following extracts from the report suggest the point 
of view of the committee: 

We believe that elementary civics should permeate the entire school 
life of the child. In the early grades the most effective features of 
this instruction will be directly connected with the teaching of regular 
subjects in the course of study. Through story, poem, and song 
there is the quickening of those emotions which influence civic life. 
The works and biographies of great men furnish many opportunities 
for incidental instruction in civics. The elements of geography serve 
to emphasize the interdependence of men — the very earliest lesson 
in civic instruction. A study of pictures and architecture arouses the 
desire for civic beauty and orderliness. 

It is recommended that civics and history should, so far as possi- 
ble, be taught as allied subjects with the emphasis at one time upon/ 
history and at another time upon present civics. Along with the 



14 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

incidental instruction in civics, there should be given suitable lessons 
in the present-day political activities connected with the life of the 
child. He should gradually come to realize that each political unit, 
town, city, state, nation, is a group of people organized in such a 
manner as to do for the members of that group those kinds of work 
which all need to have done. 

The special aim in the teaching of civics therefore should be to help 
the child realize himself as a member of each political group that does 
work for him. . . . 

The committee is of the unanimous opinion that the best results 
can be secured in the teaching of government in the seventh and eighth 
grades when pupils are assigned definite readings in a good text on 
civics. Many of these assignments should accompany the regular 
lessons in history. Others would be taken more advantageously as 
separate lessons, for which provision should be made in the program. 

Stated approximately, the time to be given civics should be at 
least twenty minutes a week for a half year in grades five and six; 
forty minutes in grade seven, and sixty minutes in grade eight. 

The above suggestions are commendable and it is noteworthy 
that in a complete program for elementary schools it is only 
necessary that the brief recommendations of this committee be 
expanded and made more specific with full instructions, devices 
and available material, and that provision be made for the be- 
ginning of civic instruction in the grades preceding the fifth. 

(c) The Committee of Five. 

On account of certain criticisms of the report of the committee 
of seven and the growing need of some slight revisions, a second 
committee was appointed in 1907 and rendered its report in 191 1. 
Considerable attention was given to the relation between United 
States history and civil government. 

After discussing briefly the relation of history and govern- 
ment the committee concluded that 

in light of all the facts we can gather we are justified, probably, in 
saying that there is an undoubted desire on the part of many teachers 
to have the opportunity to give a separate course in government, 



RECENT PROGRESS 15 

especially for the purpose of dwelling on certain phases of actual 
politics and government that cannot be readily and adequately dis- 
cussed in connection with American history ... we desire to say 
clearly that we do not think that the two subjects, despite their in- 
terpendence, should be so taught as to crowd out government or give 
insufficient time for its proper study. More and more as the days 
go by it becomes plain that the schools have the clear duty of giving 
full instruction on the essentials of American government and prac- 
tical politics. We have no desire to underestimate this need and this 
duty. 

The committee thinks, however, that much that is commonly 
called government can best be taught in connection with his- 
tory. On the other hand, it is admitted that such subjects as 
the state constitutional system, local government, party or- 
ganization and party machinery cannot be adequately treated 
in connection with history and that these will require separate 
and independent consideration. For a separate course the sug- 
gestion is offered that 

the distribution of time between government and history in the 
fourth year should, we believe, be in some such ratio as this — two- 
fifths of the time may be given to separate work in government and 
three-fifths to the course in history. This arrangement will not appear 
to all teachers as ideal; some teachers will desire more time for history, 
others more time for government. But on the whole the distribution 
appears to be the best that can be proposed, and we should be the 
last to assert that no teacher should modify any adjustment or ar- 
rangement to suit his own needs and inclinations, if they are based 
on an intelligent regard for the subject and his pupils. Many teachers 
will prefer to give the civil government separately after the history 
work is concluded. But while this plan may have its advantages in 
some respects, the continuous study of government throughout the 
year side by side with history has also advantages that merit consider- 
ation. Where the study of government extends through the whole 
year, there are many opportunities for concrete illustrations and even 
learning by observation, which are not allowed in a shorter time: 
elections are held; municipal problems arise and are discussed in the 
newspapers; important appointments to office are announced; the 



1 6 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

usual presidential message appears. These advantages will induce 
many teachers to prefer the system of carrying government through 
the year side by side with history. 

By the time this report was presented the movement in favor 
of greater time and attention to the study of civics was well 
under way and naturally the recognition of the trend of the times 
is shown in the recommendation that the year's work in American 
history and civil government be subdivided on the basis of 3-5 
to history and 2-5 to civil government. Although the recom- 
mendation has been made rather recently, there are many in- 
dications that the suggestion has been followed by superinten- 
dents and principals. The report scarcely goes far enough to 
suit teachers especially interested in the field of civics, nor for 
that matter, many others who have an incidental interest in the 
subject, but a long step forward was taken in recognizing the 
growing demands for the study of modern political organiza- 
tions and their functions. 

History Teachers' Associations. 

Among those who have aided in improving the teaching of 
civics are to be found some of the active members of the teachers' 
associations, including the associations of New England, the 
Middle States and Maryland, the Mississippi Valley, and the 
Pacific States, — all of which have at various times given con- 
siderable attention to the discussion of methods of instruction 
in government. The most effective work has been done by the 
New England History Teachers' Association and by the Middle 
States Association. The first of these has not only considered 
the matter of civics in many of its meetings, but also through a 
special committee it has prepared an outline for teachers which 
has been published as a volume entitled, "An Outline of the 
Study of American Civil Government," with special reference 
to training for citizenship. The outline presents a comprehen- 
sive survey of topics and material for study and adds a list of 



RECENT PROGRESS 17 

select references for the study of governmental organizations 
and for certain principles of government. It is one of the most 
useful guides now available for teachers. 

As an evidence of the modern trend of discussion may be 
cited in particular the session devoted to this subject by the 
Association of the Middle States and Maryland at Albany in 
November, 1913, in which "The Teaching of Civics in the Ele- 
mentary Schools " was discussed by J. Lynn Barnard; "Civics in 
the High School and Training for Citizenship" by James Sulli- 
van; "Training for Citizenship from the Standpoint of Colleges 
and Universities " by Charles A. Beard. At the close of the 
conference the following resolutions were unanimously adopted: 

How Shall Schools Train for Citizenship? 

Elementary and Secondary Schools. 

1. The order of teaching should be from the functions to the ma- 
chinery of government, with special emphasis on function rather than 
machinery. 

2. The work should be based on the pupils' experience and imme- 
diate surroundings. 

3. There should be a continual connection of civics with current 
events, and the student should be made to form the habit of keeping 
up with the news. 

4. The keynote of the course should be the obligation of the citi- 
zen to serve the community. 

5. Means should be found for the actual participation of the stu- 
dents in civic activities. This means more than the usual visits to 
courts and public buildings. They should do something to help, 
either as individuals or through civic associations. 

6. Civic training should be secured through the organization and 
discipline of the school. If the organization is such as to develop 
in the pupils personal responsibility, initiative, a social conscience, 
and high ideals of conduct, the best civic lesson has been learned. 

7. Civics should be given a place of its own separate from history. 

8. This association should take steps to secure separate examina- 
tions for United States history and civics and examination questions 
for civics which call for something besides a knowledge of the machin- 
ery of government. 



18 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

3. National Municipal League. 

Another organization which has been interested and active in 
the movement to improve the teaching of government and civics 
in the schools is the National Municipal League. In fact, this 
organization was one of the first to enter the field and some 
effective results have been accomplished particularly along the 
line of the teaching of municipal government. Various com- 
mittees have been appointed and reports presented dealing with 
all phases of civic instruction. The results of these committees 
along with the papers and discussions relating thereto are in- 
cluded in the reports of the Conferences on Good City Govern- 
ment published by the League and in the recent issues of the 
" National Municipal Review." The first report of the com- 
mittee on instruction in municipal government in American col- 
leges was presented in 1901 and includes the results of a ques- 
tionnaire sent to several hundred institutions covering the work 
offered along the lines of government and law. A list of works 
bearing on the general subject of city government was also of- 
fered, and the tendency to improve courses in municipal govern- 
ment in the colleges was very strongly commended. James T. 
Young discussed university instruction in municipal government 
and two outlines of courses on municipal government were 
presented, one prepared by L. S. Rowe of the University of 
Pennsylvania, the other by R. C. Brooks of Cornell University. 
These outlines indicate the effort made at this time to sys- 
tematize and render effective the instruction in municipal gov- 
ernment. 

The continuance of interest is shown in a further discussion 
of the teaching of municipal government in American educa- 
tional institutions at the annual meeting for 1902, and in the 
presentation of suggestions for courses on municipal government. 
Again in 1903 the subject was discussed by John A. Fairlie, 
who offered the following conclusions relative to courses in civil 
government: first, simple lessons in the duties of public agents, 



RECENT PROGRESS 19 

in the elementary schools; second, the systematic study of one 
city, in high schools and academies; third, a comparative 
study of American municipal government, as a part of a general 
study of government in colleges and universities; fourth, a 
comprehensive study of municipal government for advanced 
students in the universities, leading to fifth, the technical courses 
in the various professional departments in the universities. 
His valuable paper was followed by a discussion of the teaching 
of municipal government in the high schools of our large cities. 
Wilson L. Gill of Philadelphia presented an account of the 
School City which is now well known as one of the special de- 
vices to increase interest in practical civic affairs. This address 
contains a code of laws for the School City, and includes the 
comment that " public schools and colleges, boasted bulwarks 
of our liberties, have unwittingly but ceaselessly nursed the 
spirit of monarchy." 

In 1904 a second report on university and collegiate research 
in municipal government was presented. In the course of the 
report it was observed that " there has been no searching 
analysis of the civic usefulness of the college bred man," and 
that the leading subjects of the public schools "do not contrib- 
ute toward the development of civic instincts, nor to the 
strengthening of civic effort." At the same session a tentative 
program for the teaching of municipal government and civics in 
the elementary schools was offered. A further discussion of the 
School City and the results of another committee, were submitted 
under the title, "Instruction in Modern Government" at the 
annual session in 1905. The report contained an outline of a 
course in municipal government for high schools. In 1905 
Frederick L. Luqueer offered a syllabus for civics in the grades 
and Jesse B. Davis reported on a high school program, with the 
observation that "the committee does not favor the teaching 
of civics or municipal government in the earlier years of the high 
school course, but would recommend the plan of the committee 



20 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

of seven on the teaching of history, in which civics is a part of 
the unit in American history.' ' 

After several years the status of instruction in municipal 
government in the universities and colleges was again discussed 
by a committee of which William Bennett Munro was chairman 
in a report which contains a strong presentation of the impor- 
tance and task of the teacher of political science, and the aim 
and purpose of instruction in municipal government. A further 
report bringing the tables and data up to 19 14 was prepared on 
behalf of the committee by Professor Munro and published in 
the " National Municipal Review." The efforts of the League 
along the line of improving the teaching of government in the 
schools has culminated in the appointment of a committee on 
Civic Education. This committee rendered a preliminary re- 
port at Toronto in 19 13 and continued its work under the leader- 
ship of Arthur W. Dunn, who has recently become associ- 
ated with the Bureau of Education as special agent in Civic 
Education. The plan under which the work is being conducted 
is thus described by Mr. Dunn in a circular issued under the 
direction of the Bureau of Education: 

With the cooperation of the National Municipal League and other 
organizations long interested in the problem of education for citizen- 
ship, the United States Bureau of Education is undertaking a compre- 
hensive study of the whole problem of civic education. . . . 

In this field of activity the government bureau of education hopes 
to do officially and systematically what has heretofore been attempted 
by a number of organizations working independently. Many civic 
associations throughout the United States have been agitating in 
behalf of education for citizenship; valuable results have been ob- 
tained; and many communities have made important experiments in 
improving citizenship through the schools and through other agencies. 
The Bureau will seek to coordinate these hitherto separate efforts; 
to bring cooperation where independent action has prevailed; to 
make known everywhere the results of civic education so far accom- 
plished; and to formulate a constructive plan for definite work in this 
important field. 



RECENT PROGRESS 21 

In announcing the Bureau's new work Commissioner Claxton 
points out that in the larger sense all education is really educa- 
tion for citizenship; that not only is citizenship training co- 
extensive with effective education in general, but that "the 
final justification of public taxation for public education lies in 
the training of young people for citizenship." The work already 
accomplished through the agency of the United States Bureau 
of Education in the publication of bulletins and in rendering 
assistance to schools in reorganizing courses is one of the most 
encouraging evidences of increasing interest in government 
instruction. 1 

4. American Political Science Association, 
(a) Committee of Five. 

No systematic effort was made by teachers of government 
toward the improvement of instruction until the formation of 
the American Political Science Association in Baltimore in 1902 
and 1903. At the meetings of this Association each year papers 
were offered which have proved of special interest and value 
to teachers. At the meeting of the Association in 1903 a sec- 
tion was devoted to instruction in government and a paper was 
presented by William A. Schaper of the University of Minne- 
sota on the subject, "What do our students know about Ameri- 
can government before taking college courses in political science? " 
The interest created by this discussion resulted in the formation 
of a committee of three which was appointed at the meeting of 
the Association in Providence in the following year. The mem- 
bers originally appointed were: William A. Schaper, University 
of Minnesota; Isidor Loeb, University of Missouri, and Paul 

5. Reinsch, University of Wisconsin. The following year at 
Madison the committee was increased to five by the addition 
of James A. James of Northwestern University and James 
Sullivan of Brooklyn, N. Y. A very thorough investigation of 

1 See Civic Education Series and Bulletins No. 41-1913; 17-1915; 23-1915. 



22 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

the entire field of secondary school instruction was made by the 
committee, and its report marks one of the greatest steps for- 
ward in the way of bringing to the attention of teachers the 
necessity of more time and better instruction in this subject. 
To quote from the report: 

Is it not a curious fact that though our schools are largely institu- 
ted, supported and operated by the government, yet the study of 
American government in the schools and colleges is the last subject 
to receive adequate attention? The results of the neglect of this 
important branch of study in our educational institutions can easily 
be seen in the general unfitness of men who have entered a political 
career, so that now the name of statesman is often used as a term of 
reproach, and the public service is weak, except in a few conspicuous 
instances. Are the schools perhaps to blame for the lack of interest 
in politics shown by our educated men until the recent exposures 
arrested the attention of the entire nation? 

We think the best place to begin the work of regeneration and re- 
form is in the American secondary schools and colleges. Here we find 
the judges, legislators, diplomats, politicians and office-seekers of the 
future in the making. Here are the future citizens too, in their most 
impressionable years, in the years when the teacher has their attention. 

The inquiry of the committee centered about five main 
features: 

i. Number of students enrolled and the time given to the 
subject. 

2. The nature of the course and the plan of instruction. 

3. The teacher. 

4. The text-book. 

5. The school library. 

The report dealt with the important phases of civic instruction 
in secondary schools. The recommendations offered are as 
follows: l 

1 This entire report is especially valuable to teachers of government. Only 
a condensed statement with a few extracts can be given here. The report 
is in the volume containing the Proceedings of the American Political Science 
Association for 1908. 



RECENT PROGRESS 23 

A . Elementary Schools. 

The committee recommends that the discussion of the simple and 
readily observable functions and organs of local government be 
introduced into all the grades beginning not later than the fifth. The 
early instruction should take the form of observations by the class 
under direction of the teacher, talks or readings by the teacher, in- 
tended to add to the pupils' common stock of information, accounts 
of happenings and experiences, etc. In the eighth grade more formal 
instruction in local, state and national government should be given 
using an elementary text and some reference books. This work 
might well occupy the time of a subject for one-half of the eighth 
year. The emphasis in the grammar grade work on government 
should be on local and State governments and should deal with actual 
projects, activities and methods of doing things rather than consist 
of a mere collection of lists of officers and their salaries or an analysis 
of the constitution. The eighth grade classes can profitably be taken 
by the teacher to observe a session of a local court, city council, con- 
vention or polling place. Simple rules of parliamentary procedure 
can be explained and practiced. 

For this work the essential thing is a teacher who understands and 
appreciates the subject and knows the community. The teacher 
needs a small collection of well chosen books, some current maga- 
zines and newspapers and the latest local official reports and 
bulletins. 

B. High Schools. 

In any system of schools where the subject has been properly 
treated in the grades, it is a simple task to plan the work for the high 
school. American government should follow upon the work in his- 
tory and should be a required study to occupy at least five recitations 
per week for one-half of the fourth year, or three recitations per week 
for that entire year. This is the minimum time which should be given 
to the subject. Some high schools are now devoting a full year to it 
with profit. 

In case the subject has not been taught in the grades, and especially 
in towns where many boys drop out of the high school before reach- 
ing the fourth year, it is highly desirable to offer an elementary course 
in government in the first or second years, so as to place it within 
reach of the greatest possible number. In the larger city high schools 
this elementary course can be offered as an additional elective with- 
out serious inconvenience. 



24 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

There may be wide differences of opinion as to what constitutes 
an education, but surely these three things are essential: 

A reasonable facility in the use of our country's language, including 
an acquaintance with its best literature; a reasonable comprehension 
of the practical workings of our country's government; and a fair 
understanding of its past history. 

There are two methods of presenting the subject: one begins with 
the local government near at hand and proceeds to the study of the 
state and then to the national government. The other begins with 
the national government and proceeds to the state and local. In a 
high school course either plan may be adopted. If the school is situ- 
ated in one of the older commonwealths, the first plan seems more 
logical and natural, while if situated in one of the newer states, ad- 
mitted long after the formation of the union, and governed mean- 
while as a territory under acts of congress, the second plan may for 
an equally good reason be adopted. 

In any case, the emphasis should be placed on the government 
of the locality, especially of the city, the town and the state with 
which the citizens come in contact most frequently. It is the local 
and state governments which largely determine the conditions under 
which we live. The attention of the future citizens should be directed, 
therefore, primarily to a study of their organization and their problems, 
rather than to the national government as the text-books have done 
in the past. 



C. Specially Trained Teachers. 

The greatest need to-day is more teachers especially trained in 
political science. The practice of attaching the subject of govern- 
ment to the duties of any high school teacher on the force, whose 
time is not fully taken up with a multitude of other things, is univer- 
sally condemned. 



D. College Entrance. 

The entrance conditions of every university should allow credit 
for at least one-half to one unit of American Government. Where 
entrance examinations are given the questions should be so framed 
as to test, not merely memory work, but also the understanding of 
the actual workings of governmental organs and information on cur- 
rent public questions. 



RECENT PROGRESS 25 

E. The Teacher's Training. 

Another matter of vital importance is the proper training of teach- 
ers of government. The subject should receive its due proportion 
of time in the training schools for teachers and in teachers' institutes. 
A number of states now make a knowledge of the subject an essential 
requirement in qualifying for any teaching position in all the public 
schools. Such a provision in the law regulating the qualification of 
teachers is reasonable and is a very direct way of stimulating instruc- 
tion in the subject. 1 

F. The Library for Government. 

Every high school whether large or small, should have as a part 
of its equipment a collection of books, reports, documents, current 
literature and legal forms for the study of government. Some of this 
material is primarily for the use of the teacher. No teacher can hope 
to keep up in this subject who does not follow the current discussions, 
public acts, messages and reports concerning the actual doings of 
government departments, officials, committees and political parties. 

G. Observations of Actual Government. 

Much interest can be aroused and the hazy impressions about gov- 
ernment can be made clear and definite by occasionally witnessing 
the procedure of government bodies and by encouraging the students 
to follow the actual workings of government by reading the news- 
papers and magazines. 

(b) Committee of Seven. 

About five years after the appearance of this report it seemed 
advisable to the officers of the American Political Science Asso- 
ciation to constitute a new committee to investigate and report 
upon changes in the secondary school field as well as to make 
further inquiries along lines not comprehended within the scope 
of the committee of five. As a consequence it was voted at the 
annual business meeting of the Association held in Buffalo, 
December, 191 1, "that a committee of seven members be 
appointed to consider the methods of teaching and studying 
government now pursued in American schools, colleges and 

1 The committee also made some useful suggestions as to text-books, see 
Proceedings, 1908, p. 255. 



26 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

universities, and to suggest means of enlarging and improving 
such instruction." The nature and scope of the work undertaken 
by this committee is indicated in the ensuing report. 

(c) Committee on Practical Training for Public Service. 

To further extend the influence of the educational efforts of 
the Association there was constituted at the Boston meeting 
in 1 9 13 a committee of five with a view (1) to examine and make 
a list of places where laboratory work for graduate students in 
political science can be done; (2) to recommend to the various 
college and university faculties that due graduate credit be 
given to such places; (3) to use its best endeavors to obtain 
scholarships for this laboratory work and to secure an endow- 
ment for the building up of a trained body of public servants; 
and (4) to make, if possible, a system of card records and ef- 
ficiency standards for graduates doing practical work in political 
science. 1 A joint committee on conference was appointed by 
the American Economic Association. A preliminary report was 
presented to the American Political Science Association in 1914. 
Subsequently a plan was submitted for training schools for pub- 
lic service with proposed standard regulations for the degree of 
doctor of philosophy. 2 As an outgrowth of the work undertaken 
through this committee two national conferences were held and a 
society was formed for the promotion of training for the public 
service. 

One of the significant things in the present movement to im- 
prove the teaching of government in the schools and colleges is 
the apparent unanimity of opinion among the various committees 
interested. While each is approaching the subject from a some- 
what different angle and while the results and conclusions offered 

1 Charles McCarthy, Madison, Chairman, Albert Bushnell Hart, Har- 
vard University, Benjamin F. Shambaugh, University of Iowa, William F. 
Willoughby, Princeton University, Raymond G. Gettcll, Amherst College. 

2 For information relative to the work of this committee write to the Chair- 
man, Dr. Charles McCarthy, Madison, Wis. 



RECENT PROGRESS 2 7 

will no doubt vary somewhat, all indications point in the direc- 
tion that the several Associations are working toward a single 
end, that is, to make the study of government an essential 
feature of our educational system, to tie the instruction to the 
interest and conditions of local communities, to stress functions 
and to approach the study of governmental forms and of gen- 
eral principles through the avenue of functions. It is fortunate 
that several organizations of national importance are offering 
recommendations at the same time, and are preparing sugges- 
tions as well as concrete aid to teachers. The subject of govern- 
ment has too long been made a subordinate and minor matter in 
the school curriculum. It is now well on its way to secure the 
prominent place in the schools which the content of the subject 
and its significance to the community so well deserve. 

III. The Purpose of Instruction in Government. 

1. Aims of Civic Instruction. 

The prime purposes of a study of civic relations are so obvious 
as to require little in the way of discussion. They may be 
summarized thus: 

1. To awaken a knowledge of the fact that the citizen is in a 
social environment whose laws bind him for his own good. 

2. To acquaint the citizen with the forms of organization 
and methods of administration of government in its several de- 
partments. 

These objects it is believed can be better attained if the school 
begins to aid the young citizen not only to think in terms of 
society but also to translate civic thought into action. Instead 
of abstract theories and facts which have no meaning children 
can readily be taught to read government reports and to learn 
what are the significant facts to look for. In the words of Henry 
Bruere, "Why should not a high school pupil learn that the 
efficiency of the health department may be gauged by some 
such facts as: the death rate, infant mortality rate, measles, 



28 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

scarlet fever and diphtheria rates (morbidity and death), the 
bacteria count of milk, maximum/ minimum and average, the 
number of school children treated for defects, the number of 
nuisances abated — all as compared with previous records." 
Such is the viewpoint emphasized in community civics in which 
the chief object is to help the child to know his own community. 
The specific aims of community civics are designated in the 
Bureau of Education Bulletin on the Teaching of Community 
Civics as: 

i. To see the importance and significance of the elements of com- 
munity welfare in their relations to himself and to the communities 
of which he is a member; 

2. To know the social agencies, governmental and voluntary, that 
exist to secure these elements of community welfare; 

3. To recognize his civic obligations, present and future, and to 
respond to them by appropriate action. 

These three aims are given in the above order because it is essential 
to the success of this course that at the outset the interest of the 
pupil be attached to the element of common welfare, and that he be 
taught to think of each agency as a means to an end and not as an end 
in itself. Each part of the study should culminate in a recognition 
of personal responsibility as a good citizen, and, as far as possible, 
in appropriate action. 

Many courses in civics fail because they fix attention upon the 
machinery of government rather than upon the elements of community 
welfare for which government exists; that is, they familiarize the 
pupil with the manipulation of the social machinery without showing 
him the importance of the social ends for which this machinery should 
be used. Consequently, the pupil upon leaving school, uses his knowl- 
edge for ends which are most evident to him, namely, his own selfish 
interests. 

2. Civics for the Education of the Electorate. 

One of the chief reasons why the teaching of government has 
appeared useless and futile is that the subject was treated as 
designed mainly to educate voters. Accordingly its direct 
application could only be to those who would in the future be 



RECENT PROGRESS 29 

qualified to exercise the suffrage and the practical applications 
were so remote as to be nearly negligible. Moreover, the voter 
is called upon to fulfill this high function only on special occa- 
sions and in such a manner as to render it questionable whether 
any course in civic training could be of much value. As long as 
civics was thought of as chiefly devised to educate voters its 
value and utility, however important the exercise of the fran- 
chise might be, would be considered as exceedingly remote. 
The information in the course would be of such a character as 
to be forgotten long before any practical application would be 
possible. Whereas if civic training were conceived as a training 
to fit citizens of all classes, ages and conditions to lead lives of 
usefulness and service in the community of everyday affairs 
the course would become at once vital, interesting and practical. 
It is a change in emphasis, a development of a new point of view, 
more than any other thing that has contributed to the growth of 
interest in civic studies. Although training to participate in the 
everyday social and political activities of the community is un- 
questionably the foremost aim of social studies it nevertheless 
remains true that some special attention should be given to 
those matters which have to do with the rights and obligations 
of the future voter. Naturally creating an interest and desire 
to participate in community affairs will give the most effective 
preliminary preparation for the future elector. 

It is strange indeed that educators have been so slow to recog- 
nize their duties and responsibilities to the community in a 
nation where democratic rules and practices prevail. Nowhere 
has the citizen been accorded such heavy burdens and far reach- 
ing responsibilities as in the United States. The task of the 
citizen who is commonly lauded as the sovereign in this country 
is performed, among many other duties and responsibilities, in the 
election of officials, local, state and national. In addition to the 
election of a host of officials, the citizen as voter is called upon to 
nominate these officers. Finally, he is called upon to make con- 



3 o THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

stitutions and by frequent revisions and amendments to change 
the fundamental law under which he lives. Moreover, through 
the initiative and referendum he may have the responsibility 
to vote upon the laws which shall govern him. In the same elec- 
tion, he may be expected to vote on dozens of propositions to 
be enacted into law and for candidates for scores of offices. 

We have lauded the spectacle of the common people rising to 
the height of free government through the ballot, we have heaped 
additional burdens upon citizens, but what have we done and 
what are we doing to educate the people to use intelligently the 
mighty weapon of democracy? 

It is not an exaggeration to say that little attention has been 
given to practical instruction in the devices which make demo- 
cratic government possible. To be sure much has been written 
and much more said about education for citizenship. It has 
been the stock in trade for political orators and commence- 
ment speakers. 

But politicians, bosses, machine manipulators and ward 
heelers, have long since discovered the utter sham and foolish- 
ness of this twaddle about citizenship which ends in rhetoric. 
They have busied themselves with ballot legislation, cultivating 
constituencies, delivering votes, filling offices and controlling the 
men who fill them. They have studied the art of citizenship while 
teachers have been wont to elevate and inspire by theoretical 
dissertations on good citizenship. While students have memor- 
ized, lauded and worshipped our federal Constitution and 
doted upon the wonders of our unique plan of government 
political leaders have quietly garnered a harvest by mastering 
the art of manipulating the machinery of government. 

Although the entire public school system has as one of its 
aims the training of citizens it can scarcely be claimed that 
anything more than a beginning has been made to educate and 
train definitely for actual service in the community the citizens 
who pass under the influence of our public school system. We 



RECENT PROGRESS 31 

have yet to learn the lesson which received convincing demon- 
stration in Greece, that democracy is possible only with an 
electorate trained in the most complete sense in civic affairs. 

3. Civics and Social Service. 

The recent development of civics from obscurity to a leading 
place in education indicates that educators are coming to ap- 
preciate their responsibilities in this respect. According to G. 
Stanley Hall, "The one word now written across the very zenith 
of the educational skies, high above all others, is the word serv- 
ice/ ' This is coming to be as it should be, he maintains, the 
supreme goal of all pedagogical endeavor, the standard by which 
all other values are to be measured. In this dispensation, the 
very best thing the schools are beginning to do is to inculcate 
some knowledge of and sympathy with the simple duties of 
civic virtue. The new process places great emphasis and high 
responsibility upon the teachers of the social sciences, history, 
economics and civics, the latter not being the least of the three 
in furnishing its part of the training for the new calling. The 
beginning of civic education is the betterment of the group 
spirit. To continue from the admirable characterization of the 
high purpose of civic instruction by Professor Hall: 

Our schools were established to give an intelligent basis to govern- 
ment of, by, and for the people, and in civics we are restoring the 
school to this prime original function, the need of which has greatly 
increased by reason of the growing complexity of governmental 
machinery. Owing to the progressive educational neglect of these 
fields in recent decades and to the great influx of foreigners who needed 
to be inducted into the very elements of democracy, the chasm 
made by this increasing political ignorance, on the one hand, and the 
increased intricacy of methods and the vast multiplication of prob- 
lems and agencies, on the other, we have passed through a period of 
miscarriage that will soon be regarded as tragic and pathetic. The 
old basis of intelligent, independent, patriotic, rural yeomanry of the 
post-constitutional days has gone forever or become an element of 
dwindling significance, and in its place the average voter is urban, 



32 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

unenlightened, thinks, feels, and acts in squads and at the dictation 
of interested leaders, who often acquire despotic power, animated by 
the hope of gain, while they and legislators are often coerced by the 
public-be-damned private interests, trusts, etc. The new socializa- 
tion seeks to put an end to all this by teaching young children sound 
and loyal sentiments and inducting older ones into the technique 
of public administration. The civic movement would make every 
school and university a solidarity of mutual helpfulness, would arouse 
and capture the very greatest power for good that exists in the world 
which is the enthusiasm of youth. 1 

The period of civic awakening thus, thinks Professor Hall, pre- 
sents a pedagogical situation of unexcelled opportunities. It 
marks a new order in which civics becomes the religion of service 
of the public schools. If it is the chief end of education to fit one 
to respond intelligently to that high calling which is the common 
call to every man to take his place, to do his work in the commu- 
nity of his fellows, the new civics must be given a much greater 
place in the school curriculum than is now commonly accorded. 

4. Danger in Civics Teaching. 

Viscount Bryce long ago called attention to a danger which is 
likely to occur in the teaching of government. The difficulty 
seems to be that information is presented to enable recipients 
to think they know something about the great problems of 
politics, and yet this information may be insufficient to show 
how little they really know. This danger is so obvious that some 
writers go so far as to oppose all civic instruction because of 
superficial knowledge and snap judgments which are based 
thereon. In the words of Professor Hall again, "the cause of 
civic righteousness is so vast and all conditioning, especially in a 
democracy, that it often makes feeble and untrained minds 
fanatic and discredits the very cause they would advance.' ' 

Teachers of civics recognize this difficulty and realize that it is 

1 "Educational Problems," vol 2, Chapter on Civic Education, pp. 667- 
682. 



RECENT PROGRESS 33 

necessary at the same time that instruction in government be 
presented to impress the spirit of humility and the necessity of 
deferring to the judgment of experts on many questions relating 
to civic affairs. Relative to this matter, David Snedden, Com- 
missioner of Education of Massachusetts, in discussing the na- 
ture of a liberal education observes: "The essence of general 
civic education is to produce good employers of civic workers, 
that is, persons who will know how to choose efficient and honest 
employees. From this standpoint, shall we continue to be able 
to call a man liberally educated for the conditions of modern 
life who manifests incapacity and professes indifference in exer- 
cising his social responsibility in the joint purchase of expert 
political service?' ' A similar opinion is that expressed by Ex- 
President Eliot who says: "To produce such experts and to 
instil respect for expert judgment is one of the most urgent 
duties of the American university. For insufficient apprecia- 
tion of the value of expert labor is one of the worst afflictions of 
American life." 

The problem which confronts instructors in civics is one 
which inheres in every phase of our national life. How far can 
questions of government be considered and determined by the 
electorate and through public opinion, and how far can they 
best be determined by experts trained for the governmental 
service and practical affairs of administration? It is necessary 
to realize in this regard a distinction which is also beginning to 
receive consideration among practical men of affairs as well as 
among students and teachers of politics, one which is much 
more generally understood in the European countries than in the 
United States, namely, that political matters may properly and 
logically be separated into two distinct classes. One class com- 
prises questions of a general nature, questions of policy and of 
the point of view and attitude of the community toward govern- 
ment and its activities, and of questions which are essentially 
political in nature and on which public opinion and the electorate 



34 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

may determine with a great degree of certainty and accuracy. 
On the other hand, there is a large part of governmental affairs 
which is technical in nature and on which no one but an expert 
is qualified to form an opinion of any value whatever. The 
great majority of governmental issues and problems particularly 
in the complex society of to-day come within the second class, 
but the expert in his field must be tempered and directed by the 
predominant voice of public opinion as determined in the 
settlement of public questions. The teacher of civics then has 
with respect to the education of future voters a twofold aim: 
first, to aid in the appreciation and consideration of the under- 
lying principles and of the great political issues which the citi- 
zen is called upon to decide; second, to offer sufficient knowl- 
edge and appreciation of the administration of government so 
as to render possible the understanding of the work of the expert 
and to aid in the selecting process which belongs to the citizen. 
Moreover, the chief function of civic instruction, it must always 
be remembered, is not simply to give a kind of preliminary train- 
ing for casting the ballot for this is but a small part of the duty 
which citizenship entails. To appreciate the social and gov- 
ernmental institutions of his community, to fulfill his part in 
making those institutions agencies of progress and helpfulness 
in the great struggle for good government and liberty, such is 
the high function of civic instruction. 

IV. Methods, Material and Devices. 

While the content of government teaching has undergone a 
marked transformation within recent years, the methods and 
material of the course have been subject to no less reformation. 
The old text-book style of instruction with the memorization 
of constitutions, names of officers, etc., was relatively simple 
and it is not surprising that the subject of civics was assigned 
to some member of the high school faculty to fill an otherwise 
incomplete schedule. Fortunately, this type of instruction as 



RECENT PROGRESS 35 

well as this kind of teacher are rapidly disappearing, and the 
new civics requires a knowledge of a wider range of material 
and involves difficulties of method which will soon render it 
entirely impracticable for any but the specially trained teacher 
to undertake the presentation of the subject. 

1. Ways of Rendering Instruction Practical. 

The method which is being adopted in the progressive courses 
of civic instruction includes a diversity of material and a variety 
of ways of handling the same. No course in secondary civics 
can now be presented effectively without a good text as a basis 
for the course, a considerable number of prescribed supplemen- 
tary readings, a library of important works of reference com- 
bined with a reference bureau or special department of civic 
affairs. Modern magazines and newspapers are extensively 
used and the instruction is carried out into practical lines in- 
volving field w r ork, investigations and observations. Accord- 
ing to the opinion of Ex-President Eliot, the fundamental 
principle of education is "that children are best developed 
through productive activities, that is, through positive, visible 
achievement in doing, making or producing something." Ef- 
fective training for citizenship therefore requires that pupils 
shall be held responsible for making investigations upon matters 
of local application as they arise in the work. 

To render the instruction in the subject concrete and to 
demonstrate the practical nature of government itself, the 
following duties of citizenship must be stressed at every avail- 
able opportunity: 

1. Compliance with school regulations; care of books and 
school property; obedience to laws and rules laid down for the 
good of the community and of the school. 

2. Responsibility to the poor and helpless; prevention of 
cruelty to children and animals; necessity for independence 
and self-support. 



36 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

3. Care for and protection of playgrounds and park property 
such as trees, flowers, and benches. The school and home 
garden can be made a valuable adjunct to inculcate some prac- 
tical civic lessons. 

4. Keeping cellars, yards, alleys, roads and streets clean, free 
from rubbish, filth and dirt. Many cities have already learned 
the practical utility as well as the educative value of interesting 
the young citizens in civic welfare. 

Wherever feasible the class should be taken to a session of 
court, a meeting of city council or commission, the county court 
house, and perchance the state and the national capitols. Classes 
can with profit be organized as a town meeting, court or legisla- 
tive assembly. Trials can be held and elections participated in 
by the school in such a way as to demonstrate the practical pro- 
cedure of government. The principles as well as the practice 
of civics can be demonstrated in no better way than by the 
encouragement and development of student self-government. 
The School City, 1 the George Junior Republic, student organiza- 
tions to control athletics and debate, indicate clearly that under 
careful supervision junior citizens may be trusted with a large 
measure of responsibility. In fact it is difficult to understand 
how children can be trained to take their part in the demo- 
cratic control and management of government unless they are 
treated as responsible beings by school instructors. Teachers 
have too long assumed that it was necessary to organize the 
school on the principles and procedure of a despotism. The 
remarkable success of self-government in many cases where it 
has been given a fair trial demonstrates its value not only as a 
plan of school discipline but also as a training in practical civics. 

An effective method of securing results and encouraging in- 

1 For information as to the organization and operation of the School City 
in various schools consult The Boys and Girls' Republic and A New 
Citizenship, by Wilson L. Gill, or write to the American Patriotic League, 
Independence Hall, Phila. 



RECENT PROGRESS 37 

terest in this line has been found in certain communities in the 
formation of civic clubs such as: The Two Rivers plan, The 
Georgia Club, The Winston-Salem Junior Civic League and the 
Newark scheme for an organized study of local government and 
community interest. The Winston-Salem idea devised primarily 
as a method of training for citizenship involves the following 
purposes: 

1. Cooperation between public schools and local board of 
trade. 

2. Establishment of a department of government and econom- 
ics, in the high school. 

3. Formation of a boys' department or juvenile club of the 
board of trade. 

The success of this club is such as to commend the plan to 
teachers of civics in towns and cities particularly where there are 
local chambers of commerce, although it is quite apparent that 
great modifications are necessary to apply any device of this 
sort so as to meet the peculiarities of local environment. 

In connection with the civics department of the high schools 
of Newark, N. J., a plan was developed by which pamphlets 
were issued on the industries of Newark and the government 
of the city in all its departments, while such matters as city 
health, sanitation and milk supply were taken up in separate 
bulletins prepared by the civics teachers. These bulletins were 
used as texts on local government and the students were en- 
couraged to help in gathering the information for other bulle- 
tins. 1 Another method of rendering the study of local govern- 
ment effective is that of the Rockford High School, Rockford, 
111., where the instructors in civil government have prepared 
a thorough syllabus on the " Government of Rockford and 

1 A feature of the Newark plan is the cooperation of the public library in 
making available to the pupils and other citizens of the city well selected 
printed material relating to every phase of Newark's development and com- 
munity life. Cf. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1914, p. 410. 



38 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Winnebago County/' The early history and the commercial 
and educational advantages of Rockford are presented, followed 
by an outline of local government in all its phases with some 
select references added for the special study of each topic. 
While it is not necessary to provide so extensive an outline as 
this the civics department in each school may find it helpful to 
prepare a method of procedure in the study of local government. 
Because of the wide variations in local communities no general 
plan can be recommended for use by all teachers. All general 
outlines must be greatly modified to meet the needs of any 
special community. It is always to be remembered that the 
community is in the nature of a laboratory and the work must 
be kept close to local conditions and needs. 

Special mention maybe made also of The Two Rivers plan put 
into operation during the past six years in Two Rivers, Wis- 
consin, where the aim of the work has been to develop a spirit 
of cooperation and civic pride through the medium of the city 
school system by awakening interest in the homes of the pupils 
in the schools. Civic activities are centred around the work of 
the public school system in the following manner: 

The meetings of the Parent-Teachers' Association, the various 
civic clubs, industrial schools, etc., are all held in the Central High 
School building which is at the geographical centre of the city. The 
civic movements have been started by discussions in the various 
literary groups and classes of the schools. These discussions are 
carried into the homes by the children. The local newspapers are 
used to the full extent, both in editorial and news departments. When 
the subjects in question have been fully discussed in the homes, one 
or more general meetings are held in the high school auditorium 
which has a seating capacity of 800. Here an address is given by 
experts, usually officials of the city, and definite action is taken either 
by resolution of the citizens present or promise of action by the city 
officials. 

Womens' Clubs, Parent-Teachers' Association, Civic Leagues, 
Commercial Club and City government are all encouraged to work 
through the civic department of the public schools. The success of 



RECENT PROGRESS 39 

the plan bids fair to encourage its acceptance and application by 
many communities similarly situated. 1 

Another movement which offers interesting possibilities along 
the line of civic training is to be found in the Home County 
Club. This has been developed somewhat in Georgia and more 
definitely in North Carolina under the leadership of E. C. Bran- 
son. The main purpose of these clubs is to form a clearing house 
and ready reference library about local and state affairs. Spe- 
cial emphasis has been given in both of these states to economic 
and social questions, but political matters receive incidental 
consideration, and the Home County Club offers excellent 
possibilities for the study of public health, sanitation, public 
charity and correction. County officers and the functions which 
they perform can thus be studied in a much more effective 
manner than has been possible heretofore. Such clubs may 
readily become centres of information and improvement in 
the organization of the county, for better schools, better roads, 
better health, better justice, better protection to the social 
and industrial interests of the community. 

2. The Community Survey. 

No step forward within recent times offers so great pos- 
sibilities for the purpose of civic instruction in local affairs 
as is involved in the social or community survey. The idea is 
comparatively new and the methods involved have only recently 
been clearly formulated. The original purposes are thus pre- 
sented by one of the leading advocates of this device: 

"1. To bring a group of experts together to cooperate with 
local leaders in gauging the social needs of one city. 

"2. To study these needs in relation to each other, to the 
whole area of the city, and to the civic responsibilities of de- 
mocracy. 

1 Furnished by W. J. Hamilton, Two Rivers, Wis. 



40 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

"3. To consider at the same time both civic and industrial 
conditions, and to consider them for the most part in their 
bearings upon the wage-earning population. 

"4. To reduce conditions to terms of household experience 
and human life. 

"5. To devise graphic methods for making these findings 
challenging, clear and unmistakable." * 

It was intended that the survey record and present essentially 
the industrial and economic conditions of the community. To 
this original purpose has now been added the comprehensive 
study and presentation of political organization and methods. 
In this regard the survey idea has developed so as to form a 
useful device for civic instruction. The activities of the Georgia 
Club give some idea of the work which may be done in this 
field. The Russell Sage Foundation of New York City and the 
extension department of the state university are always ready 
to furnish information and to cooperate in aiding local com- 
munities to make surveys. A beginning may be made by any 
high school instructor who thoroughly familiarizes himself 
with the literature now available on social and community 
surveys. 

3. Reference Library on Civic A fairs. 

Few of the modern methods and devices can be used to ad- 
vantage or with any degree of effectiveness without the accumu- 
lation of a Reference Library on Civic Affairs. These libraries 
have been formed and their usefulness tested with the result that 
a veritable government laboratory can be prepared and made a 
most important adjunct to the government department. Ma- 
terial of great interest and practical value is issued in the form 
of pamphlets or reports, and no teacher can afford to neglect 
this material especially in the teaching of current political prob- 
lems. Sample ballots, copies of laws and ordinances, reports 

1 See Pamphlet on Social Surveys issued by the Russell Sage Foundation. 



RECENT PROGRESS 41 

of officers and departments, maps and charts showing compara- 
tive statistics, are readily available and will add greatly to the 
interest in government studies. Graphic methods which have 
been used to such advantage in social and governmental exhibits 
can be followed in the preparation of many charts of local in- 
terest, and will display matters of importance not only to the 
civics class but also to the community at large. A separate 
room should be set aside in which maps, charts and other 
graphic devices can be prepared and displayed, and a part if not 
all of the time given to the study of government may well be 
spent in this room. The methods employed in the various legis- 
lative and municipal reference libraries offer many suggestions 
which can be profitably applied in preparing a library on civic 
affairs. Civics teachers wherever practicable would find it an 
advantage to visit one of the reference libraries either in con- 
nection with the city public library or a state bureau of research 
and reference. 

All such methods and devices must necessarily be used with 
caution. An overzealous interference in local affairs at once 
defeats its own end. The chief object always to be kept fore- 
most is the education of the young into the principles and prac- 
tice of better citizenship. While the aid of these young citizens 
may be enlisted in clean-up programs and civic reform such 
efforts should be incidental to regular methods which are devised 
to inform and interest growing citizens in the conditions and 
problems of local community life. They will undoubtedly re- 
ceive more benefit in an enlarged vision of community needs and 
of plans to better social conditions than the community will 
profit by the efforts of youthful reformers, although not a little 
can be accomplished by interesting children in improvement 
campaigns. 

Moreover, field work, observations and investigations while 
extremely useful, in fact indispensable, in a civics course can 
never take the place of regular class room and library reference 



42 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

work based upon a good text. All that field work can do is to add 
life and interest to the formal class room and book study. Prac- 
tical devices, local surveys, observations of local government 
ought never to be engaged in with any other purpose than to 
supplement definite and systematic class room work. A course 
that is merely inspirational without the necessary background 
of information and data to support it must be largely ineffectual, 
and there is danger that field work or sociological investigations 
poorly directed may lead to a superficial view of government 
tending to create visionary and impractical citizens who without 
necessary knowledge or the proper perspective set about to 
reform society. No practical methods can take the place of a 
careful and painstaking study of governmental principles and 
practice. The main body of a civics course will always have to 
be this sort of study based on regular text-books with definite 
class assignments. It is extremely important that civic instruc- 
tion be put into close vital touch with government in actual 
operation, but this vital touch can never compensate for a lack 
of an indispensable knowledge of governmental forms and the 
fundamental principles of political affairs. 

4. State and National Government. 

While emphasis has been given throughout the consideration 
of instruction in the public schools to the study of local govern- 
ment and community functions it is necessary to call attention 
to the fact that it is not intended to depreciate the study of 
state and national government. In elementary courses state 
and national affairs may be presented more effectively in con- 
nection with the study of government functions. For junior 
high school pupils some definite and specific assignments in the 
course will necessarily deal with the organization and functions 
of these departments. In senior high school much more atten- 
tion can be given to governmental organization than would be 
possible or advisable in the earlier grades. Here the study of 



RECENT PROGRESS 43 

such subjects as the separation of powers, the organization of 
government into departments, the houses of Congress, the organ- 
ization of the executive department, the methods of adminis- 
tration as well as the similar divisions of the state government 
including many of the boards and commissions will necessarily 
form a considerable portion of the course. Throughout this 
report it has been assumed that the study of community func- 
tions, the problem method and the introduction of practical 
devices will result in the elimination of some of the useless de- 
tails of the former civics course and will involve a changed 
viewpoint in the presentation of government topics rather than 
a totally different selection of topics. By directing attention 
to local affairs it is by no means intended that less attention be 
given to state and nation. 

There is danger, however, in the urgent demand for community 
civics and for the study of local government that time may be 
frittered away in considering purely local affairs and matters of 
petty detail to the exclusion of the fundamental issues of state 
affairs and national politics. The development of local civics 
will be largely a failure unless the work is tied up closely through- 
out with the study of the functions performed by the state gov- 
ernment, as well as those of the national government and the 
important place of each of these divisions in our complex federal 
system. 

It is not to be forgotten that the new civics means rather the 
introduction of a new point of view and a new method into the 
instruction in civics. It means a vitalization of this instruc- 
tion by indicating its direct connection with citizenship and 
the life of individuals as lived in a community. It cannot 
therefore involve a mere study of local affairs and local con- 
ditions but of necessity results in more attention to and more 
intelligent consideration of the affairs of the state and the 
nation. 

Not only is it necessary that a large part of the course in 



44 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

civics still be confined to a study of state and federal govern- 
ment, but there is good reason to believe that the comparative 
method may be introduced with profit, particularly in senior high 
school. Such comparisons as are made in Bryce's " American 
Commonwealth" may be introduced by teachers in such a way 
as to render civic instruction far more useful and suggestive. 
While the comparative method can be used only to a slight ex- 
tent, and only by teachers trained to handle such material effec- 
tively, it can undoubtedly be made the basis of some very inter- 
esting discussions, particularly if the pupils have the opportunity 
of studying modern European history either previously or par- 
allel to the government course. The committee wishes, there- 
fore, to emphasize the fact that in the discussions and suggestions 
heretofore offered it is not a change in the content of the subject 
and the elimination of material formerly presented so much as 
it is a different viewpoint and a more effective method in the 
presentation of the material that is particularly commended to 
teachers. 

5. Thoroughness. 

Finally, the committee wishes to be clearly understood as not 
favoring the consideration of such a large list of topics and such 
a range of affairs as to develop a wholly superficial attitude in the 
study of the subject. It will be far better to select several topics 
and to discuss these somewhat fully rather than to attempt a 
survey of a large list of agencies or functions. A mastery of a 
few things rather than a superficial view gathered from a wide 
and discursive study is always to be preferred. A few topics 
well chosen and carefully considered may be treated in such a 
manner as to develop the most important principles and methods 
which are involved in the ordinary governmental processes, and 
although there is a complexity in the subject which cannot be 
ignored or eliminated, it may be well to remember that thor- 
oughness is one of the greatest, if not the greatest need of the 



RECENT PROGRESS 45 

public school system at the present time. No plan of civic 
instruction can be worthy of retention in the school curriculum 
which does not require steady, persistent work and involve 
thoroughness in the instruction itself, in the methods of study 
and in the subject-matter selected. 



PART II 

REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOLS 

ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

I. Report of Committee of Seven in Cooperation with the 
Bureau of Education 

The purpose for which the Committee on Instruction was 
appointed comprised an investigation and a report upon the 
teaching of government in schools and colleges. In view of the 
present situation relative to the teaching of government it 
seemed to the committee that college instruction should receive 
first attention. Consequently more than a year was given to 
an investigation of courses offered and methods of instruction 
in higher institutions. The improvement of civic instruction 
in elementary and secondary schools was also given careful 
attention. The valuable report of the Committee of Five 
presented in 1908 covered the secondary schools thoroughly 
and the task for the committee in this field was to discover 
the progress made since 1908 and to offer such additional sug- 
gestions as might seem advisable in the light of changed condi- 
tions. 1 

By an agreement with A. W. Dunn, specialist in civic educa- 
tion, it was decided that the committee would cooperate with 
the Bureau of Education in an effort to procure data on the 
present status of instruction in secondary schools. An inquiry 
prepared by the committee and revised by Mr. Dunn was 
printed and distributed by the Bureau of Education to a select 

1 The recommendations offered by the committee of five naturally form 
the starting point for any suggestions towards improvement in secondary 
school instruction. The noteworthy recommendations of this committee 
are included in the summary presented, pp. 23-25. 

46 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 47 

list of teachers of civics. Only a portion of the valuable data 
made available in this inquiry can be presented herewith. 

The letter of transmission and the questionnaire were as 
follows: 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EDUCA- 
TION, WASHINGTON 

To the Principal and the Instructor in Government: 

In cooperation with a number of civic and educational organiza- 
tions, the Bureau of Education is seeking information in regard to 
education for citizenship in the schools of the country. It is the aim 
of the Bureau not merely to cooperate with the various organizations 
that are seeking to render service in a common field, but especially 
to coordinate their efforts so that, instead of numerous inquiries con- 
ducted independently of each other, there may be one inquiry covering 
all the essential information required, the results of the inquiry to be 
made available to all. It is hoped that this will be a distinct service, 
not only to the several agencies seeking information, but also to 
school authorities and teachers, by reducing the number of inquiries, 
official and unofficial, undertaken in this field. 

One important line of inquiry in this field is that relating to direct 
instruction in government in secondary schools. In this study the 
Bureau is cooperating especially with the Committee on Instruction 
in government appointed by the American Political Science Associa- 
tion. This committee has already made a somewhat exhaustive study 
of instruction in political science in colleges and universities, the re- 
sults of which are now in. The committee consists of Charles G. 
Haines, chairman, University of Texas; J. Lynn Barnard, School of 
Pedagogy, Philadelphia; Edgar Dawson, Hunter College, New York 
City; W. L. Fleming, Louisiana State University; Mabel Hill, Dean 
Post-Graduate Department, Dana Hall School, Wellesley; F. E. 
Horack, State University of Iowa; J. A. James, Northwestern Uni- 
versity. 

The following schedule was prepared by this committee, and has 
been repeatedly revised in the light of conferences with representatives 
of the Bureau and others, and put in a form to render response as 
complete and as easy as possible. It is expected that the results of 
the inquiry will be published by the Bureau and made available, not 
only to all seeking the information, but to all who cooperate in furnish- 
ing it. 



48 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

You are earnestly requested, therefore, to provide the information 

called for in the following schedule, filling in each item as fully and 

as carefully as possible. _. , 

Sincerely yours, 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner. 1 

i. City or town Name of school 

Total school enrollment 

2. Instruction in government is given in this school as follows: 

Hours per Number of Number Elec- Re- Sep. Comb. 
week. weeks. enrolled live quired course 

First year 
Second year 
Third year 
Fourth year 

3. Text-books used: Supplementary books used: 

4. The principal defects of secondary school text-books in govern- 

ment are (in my opinion) : 

5. The time allotted to instruction in government should be 

increased TT , -> 

, , How much? 

decreased 

Additional time for instruction in government could be provided by 

the following method: 

6. We now devote approximately per cent of the course in 

government to national gov- 
ernment. 

per cent of the course in gov- 
ernment to s ate govern- 
ment. 

per cent of the course in gov- 
ernment to local govern- 
ment. 

per cent of the course in gov- 
ernment to municipal gov- 
ernment. 

1 It is the purpose of the Bureau of Education to issue a bulletin containing 
the data and summarizing the results of this inquiry. For information write 
to A. W. Dunn, Specialist in Civic Education. 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 49 



This relative time allotment would be advantageously changed as 

follows: National per cent 

State per cent 

Local per cent 

Municipal per cent 

Organization and operation of 



7. We place the main emphasis upon 



government. 
Community functions and du- 
ties and obligations of citi- 
zens. 

8. We use the following devices to supplement instruction: 

(a) Civic scrap book. 

(b) Regular drill in current events. 

(c) Debate on public questions. 

(d) Reading of nonpartisan periodicals (give names) : 

(e) Talks to class by public officials on applied politics. 

(f ) Other devices (mention) : 

T . (is )made a subject of field investigation by 

9. Local government (fe not)pupils . If it is> state how . 

10. Our pupils (do ) study (appropriation bills) of the (local) 

(do not) (health reports ) (state) 

(other reports ) (national) 

departments in order to compare with results achieved 

in former years. 

in other localities or states. 

n. Our pupils (do ) make surveys of (streets and alleys) with ref- 

(do not) (public buildings ) 

erence to (sanitation) 
(safety) 
(appearance) 
12. (a) We (do ) have a system of pupil participation in school 

(do not) 
management, as follows (briefly describe) : 

for school discipline 

(b) This system (is ) effective as a means 

/. . \ meni. 

for developing a sense 

of civic relations. 



50 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

13. Assuming that the purpose of instruction in civics is to train for 
citizenship, I (do ) consider our course in government adequate for 

(do not) 
this purpose, and for the following reasons: 

14. I (the teacher of government) have had the following preparation 
for teaching government: 

(Note. — This information will not be published as relating to in- 
dividuals.) 

(a) Schools attended 

(b) Degrees received 

(c) Major subjects 

(d) Pedagogical training 

(e) Experience 

15. I would make the following suggestions for the improvement of 
instruction generally in government and civics 

Signed 

Official position 

Some Results and Conclusions from this Inquiry. 

2. Time given to the course. 

Civics is given as a rule in the third or fourth year of the high 
school, although occasionally an elementary course is scheduled 
in the first year. The general practice seems to favor placing 
the subject in the fourth year. While less than a half year is' 
sometimes reported as given to this study, most high schools 
give at least a half year and many schools now devote a full 
year of four or five hours a week to civic instruction. The large 
number of city schools now giving a full year course indicates 
the growing desire on the part of the public schools to fulfill 
in a more effective manner the duty of providing better civic 
training. While it is difficult for any but the large high schools 
to make provision for a full year, it is very evident that the 
subject is of such significance and the content so extensive that 
a full year is considered very desirable wherever such an arrange- 
ment can be made. In the readjustment of studies in the social- 
ized high school there seems to be little question but that a full 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 51 

year will be allotted to social science and that the major portion 
of this course will be devoted to the study of government. Some 
teachers of the subject favor the giving of one-half year to civics 
and community problems in the first year high school and a 
half year to an advanced study of the problems of government 
and political institutions in the fourth year. Whatever may be 
the decision as to the best arrangement in the curriculum there 
can be little doubt from many indications in the replies that a 
full year will soon be granted for the study of civic affairs in the 
high schools which provide four years of secondary instruction. 

3. (a) Text-Books. 

A great variety of text-books are in use, two types of which 
are w r orthy of special mention. First, there is a form of text- 
book dealing with the subject in a general way and designed for 
use in the public schools of any one of the states. As a rule, these 
text-books deal rather fully with the federal government and in a 
general way with state and local government. A few aim to give 
special attention to the fundamental principles involved in 
government and politics. Frequently they begin with local 
affairs and proceed to national. Among those which are widely 
used are the following: 

James and Sanford, " Government in State and Nation"; 
Garner, " Government in the United States"; Ashley, " American 
Government"; Forman, " Advanced Civics"; Beard, " American 
Citizenship"; Moses, "The Government of the United States"; 
Boynton, "School Civics"; Hinsdale, "The American Govern- 
ment;" Guitteau, " Government and Politics in the United 
States." 

Another type of book which is frequently used, sometimes as 
the only text-book in the course, and often as a supplementary 
text to one of the works mentioned above, aims to deal ex- 
haustively with the system of government of an individual state. 

Efforts have been made to adapt a general type of text-book 



52 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

to individual states in the preparation of state editions, the gen- 
eral portion of the work being supplemented on state and local 
affairs by some representative of the public school of the state, 
thus rendering the book of special local interest and value. 

(b) Supplementary Books. 

The time allotted to the course in civics is frequently so short 
and the interest and preparation of the teachers are such that 
supplementary reference books are not used to any extent. 
However, in a gratifying number of cases supplementary books 
are in constant and effective use. Among the books most fre- 
quently mentioned are: 

Bryce, " American Commonwealth "; Hart, " Actual Govern- 
ment"; Haskin, "The American Government "; Willoughby, 
"Rights and Duties of Citizenship "; Beard, "American Govern- 
ment and Politics"; the volumes of the "American State 
Series" edited by W. W. Willoughby; Kaye, "Readings in Civil 
Government"; Hart and McLaughlin, "Cyclopedia of Ameri- 
can Government"; Reinsch, "Readings in American Federal and 
State Government"; Munro, "The Government of American 
Cities"; Goodnow, "Municipal Government"; Beard, "Amer- 
ican City Government." Other works are occasionally men- 
tioned, and some instructors indicate the use of an extensive 
list of reference material. The most important thing is the evi- 
dence that the old method of confining the study to a single 
text is fast disappearing. 

4. Defects of text-books now in use. 

Teachers are generally disposed to criticise the present texts 
now available for class use. The most common objections are: 
first, that they are dry and uninteresting in style; second, that 
they give an excessive amount of detail on matters of little 
interest and value to the average high school pupil and neglect 
entirely other matters of more vital concern; third, that they 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 53 

give as a rule a most inadequate treatment of current problems 
and matters of great interest to citizens; fourth, that too little 
emphasis is given to local government, i. e., to the political and 
social institutions of community life. There is an evident 
tendency on the part of teachers to make use of the texts now 
available for a portion of the course and to supplement the work 
with special outlines and guides for the study of local affairs. 
Teachers are beginning to find it necessary to prepare outlines 
adapted to the needs of a particular community and thus to 
supplement a text on general civics with a carefully planned 
guide on local government and community affairs. Such guides 
have been prepared and are being successfully used in typical 
local communities, for example, the " Government of Rockford 
and Winnebago Counties " prepared by the instructors in civil 
government in Rockford High School, Rockford, Illinois, and an 
outline on community problems such as that now in use in Mish- 
awaka High School, Mishawaka, Indiana. 

Teachers seem to be of the opinion, as a rule, that text-books 
in civics are capable of considerable improvement although it is 
often suggested that the present text-books can be used with a 
fair degree of effectiveness when supplemented in a definite 
fashion with respect to local governmental affairs. 

5. Time allotted to course in civics: Should it be increased or de- 
creased and how much? 
While the answers to this question vary greatly, some teachers 
being satisfied with the present arrangement and many more 
being greatly dissatisfied, a few general conclusions are evident 
in the replies. In the first place, an overwhelming number 
favor an increase of the time now given to the subject. In many 
cases where a half year is given it is recommended that this 
time be doubled. It is only where there is at present a full year 
of four or five hours a week that there is a disposition to regard 
the time as sufficient. It is very evident that less than a half 



54 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

year is totally inadequate and that the course in civics com- 
prised of a few generalizations emphasized in a course of several 
weeks is almost universally condemned. It is evident that a 
half year to the subject fails to meet the needs and the 
necessary requirements of a course in civics such as ought now 
to be given in secondary schools. The chief difficulty with the 
present course in civics seems to be summed up in the one phrase, 
"Lack of time." As teacher after teacher puts the case, "Our 
need is very evident . . . TIME." 

Additional time for the instruction may be provided, it is 
thought, in the following ways: first, it is suggested that less time 
might be given to ancient and mediaeval history provided the 
ancient periods were not so extensively treated. Other subjects 
selected for a reduction in order to give time to civics are algebra 
and Latin. The general consensus of opinion is, however, that 
it is not necessary to modify greatly the present curriculum 
or to reduce seriously the time given to other standard subjects 
in order to find the necessary time for a thorough and adequate 
course in government instruction. Only a slight readjustment is 
necessary to provide in the school curriculum that type of civic 
instruction which modern conditions demand and which the 
social awakening in community life requires. The real need 
lies rather in the acceptance of a new point of view and the 
adoption of more modern methods of instruction. 

6. Time given to 

(a) National Government. 

(b) State Government. 

(c) Local Government. 

(d) Municipal Government. 

A majority of teachers of civics at the present time give the 
national government first place, using anywhere from 30% to 
75% °f the time. The common arrangement is to give 50% to 
the national government and 50% to state, local, and municipal 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 55 

government. This arrangement is considerably modified in 
places where local government is stressed. Here it is customary 
to find about 25% given to national government, about 25% to 
state government and the remaining time is given to community 
affairs. Throughout the suggestions made as to change of time 
it is apparent that instructors favor giving a great deal more 
attention to local government than is now customary in any 
but a comparatively few schools. 

7. Emphasis placed on: 

(a) Organization and operation of government. 

(b) Community functions and duties and obligations of citizens. 
The practice in most high schools seems to be to divide the 

course evenly, giving one-half to organization and the other half 
to community functions. A difference of opinion is apparent 
here in that the advocates of the old style of civics favor giving 
most of the time to government organization, whereas the newer 
viewpoint now prevailing in many schools encourages greater 
attention to community functions and the duties of citizen- 
ship. About an even distribution appears to be the arrange- 
ment which is meeting with the greatest success. 

8. Use of devices to supplement instruction such as: 

(a) Civic scrap book. 

(b) Regular drill in current events. 

(c) Debate on public questions. 

(d) Reading of nonpartisan periodicals. 

(e) Talks to class by public officials, 
if) Other devices. 

Many instructors indicate in their reports that either through 
lack of time or through want of interest in the practical side of 
the subject these devices are neglected. On the other hand, a 
surprising number of teachers have begun to vitalize the ordi- 
nary class and book instruction with one or more and frequently 



56 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

all of the above devices. Such periodicals as the " Independent/ ' 
" Outlook," " Pathfinder/' " Current Events," "Literary Digest," 
"Review of Reviews," "World's Work," etc., are used specific- 
ally by classes in order to create an interest and develop a knowl- 
edge of current public issues. The policy of asking city officials 
to speak before classes and to explain the operation of govern- 
ment departments is a practice which is followed with marked 
success by many teachers. It is now commonly recognized 
that the supplementary study of public questions and an in- 
terest in current events must be encouraged in every way 
possible in order to render the course interesting as well as 
useful. 

9, 10, ii. Field investigation, study of government reports, and 
the preparation of surveys on local government. 
From the many reports received it is evident that the method 
of encouraging field investigation as well as a definite and con- 
crete study of government reports is receiving acceptance slowly 
by teachers of government. However, in many of the city high 
schools field investigation is carried on quite successfully and 
the reports are made the basis for a criticism and analysis of 
the efficiency of the various government departments. Many of 
those who have begun to stress community functions by means 
of observations and field investigation have found the survey 
an invaluable asset in the effort to study and report rtiore ef- 
fectively upon various phases of local government. From all in- 
dications it seems quite apparent that the survey will come to 
be an important adjunct in encouraging the special study of local 
government and in the gathering of valuable material for class 
discussion. No other method gives such a vital touch and inter- 
est to civics teaching as does the survey with respect to the ef- 
fectiveness or ineffectiveness of the government in dealing with 
the problems growing out of community needs. The pos- 
sibilities of field investigation and surveys made under the 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 57 

direction of departments of civics have only begun to be 
appreciated. 

12. Pupil participation in school management. 

The development of a civic conscience through placing re- 
sponsibilities upon high school students in the management of 
school affairs is now recognized as one of the very best means of 
developing civic methods as well as the civic viewpoint. Many 
schools place practically all student activities in charge of a 
board of control, and matters of discipline are left in part at 
least under student management. Self-government is one of the 
well recognized and generally approved methods of putting 
civic knowledge into practice. There are few schools which 
do not use pupil participation in school management to some 
extent. In the recent progress toward democratic management 
in political affairs it is especially desirable to encourage the 
extension of such participation and the placing of greater re- 
sponsibility upon high school pupils. That pupils have 
measured up to this responsibility is the report of a majority 
of those who have given the matter a trial. That such partici- 
pation is a natural corollary to effective civic teaching and to 
the preparation of citizens for later participation in democratic 
government few will attempt to deny. All who are interested 
in modern educational development look with hope and con- 
fidence to the growth of this sentiment of democracy and to 
the extension of self government which has gained headway 
slowly in our public school system. 

13. In answer to the question whether instructors regarded 
their course in government as adequate to train for citizenship, 
very few seem to feel satisfied with the results at present attained. 
The chief reasons for dissatisfaction seem to be suggested under 
the headings, lack of time, inability to create vital interest in the 
subject, too much formal instruction, too little practical touch with 
actual affairs, insufficiency of civic material, and too little aid to 



58 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

teachers desiring to improve their courses. Where community 
civics is taught there is a disposition to feel that the course does 
train adequately for citizenship, but the older type of civic 
training is seldom defended. 

14. Preparation of teachers. 

The information presented relative to preparation to teach 
the subject of government is of peculiar interest and value. The 
failure to make civics of real worth in the school system is 
apparently due to the fact that the subject is too frequently 
given to a teacher who either has had no special prepara- 
tion whatever or has given no evidence of interest in 
the subject throughout his preparatory course. That this un- 
fortunate condition is disappearing is quite evident. A large 
number of teachers report that they not only have completed 
an ordinary college course but have also taken advanced work 
in a university, and many times it is stated that the major 
subject for the college course was in the field of history, govern- 
ment and economics. While few teachers have had any special 
preparation for the teaching of civics, many have undoubtedly 
had an excellent groundwork in a series of valuable courses 
dealing with the history of political institutions and with the 
theory and practice of government. In many high schools the 
teacher in the course has prepared himself specially for the teach- 
ing of his subject, and has developed throughout his college 
course the modern social viewpoint and a knowledge of institu- 
tions such as is of inestimable value to supplement the ordinary 
text-book material and method. The one deplorable fact in the 
reports received is the lack of the proper kind of training to 
prepare teachers of civics for their important work, in the schools 
which now give training for teachers along almost every other 
line. But little improvement in the teaching of the subject 
can be hoped for until training schools present as thorough 
instruction for the teaching of civics as is now being 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 59 

given for the teaching of mathematics, languages, and the 
sciences. 

There is a disposition on the part of some educators to think 
that civics can be effectively taught only by men. The error in 
this opinion is clearly demonstrated by the fact that many of the 
best courses now given in the new civics are offered by women, 
and it is evident that what is needed, be the teacher a man or a 
woman, is adequate training and the social viewpoint. 

15. Suggestions for improvement of instruction. 

Merely a list of the important suggestions offered can be 
given. Those which the committee regards as of primary signif- 
icance are included in a subsequent summary. A few which re- 
cur in many reports are: 

1. More time for the course in this subject. 

2. The necessity of civic instruction in the grades. 

3. Encourage pupils to maintain a system of self-govern- 
ment. 

4. Place emphasis on local government and good citizen- 
ship. 

5. Concerted action to compel colleges to give admission 
credit for courses in civics. 

6. More and better collateral material such as 

a. Reference books on government. 

b. Maps of city, county, state and nation. 

c. Periodicals of current events. 

d. City, state and national government reports. 

e. Legal forms, ballots, etc. 

7. Better preparation of teachers. 

8. Greater use of the problem method of instruction. 

9. More economics, government and sociology in the high 
school course and less time to the ancient world and middle 
ages. 

10. Greater use of the laboratory method. 



60 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

ii. Greater interest by the government, particularly through 
departments of education, in the improvement of civic instruc- 
tion. Systematic outlines for such instruction should be pre- 
pared by state and federal departments of education. 

12. More field investigation and less text-book work. 

13. Compulsory course in civics for eighth or ninth grades 
and a compulsory course in the eleventh or twelfth grades in 
all of the states. 

14. Instruction by teachers trained in government, economics, 
and sociology rather than by those specializing almost solely 
in history. 

15. Students should visit municipal buildings, court houses, 
court sessions, etc., and prepare definite reports on the visits. 



SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS APPROVED BY THE 

COMMITTEE 

1. That a year of social science (exclusive of history) be given in the 
senior high school of which at least a half year shall be devoted 
to the study of government, and that four or five hours per week 
be given to this subject. 

2. That pressure be brought to bear on colleges to accept a full year 
of social science for entrance when the subject is effectively taught. 
High schools are much less likely to do justice to this branch of 
study as long as colleges either accept no work in civics or give 
credit for only a half unit. 

3. Better preparation of teachers. Courses in normal schools, col- 
leges, and universities designed to prepare teachers of government. 

4. More emphasis on local affairs. 

5. Better material. Collection of a civics library with reference works, 
government reports and pamphlet literature illustrating all phases 
of government work. 

6. Instruction to be made more practical. Such devices are par- 
ticularly recommended as observation of local government de- 
partments, surveys of local conditions and talks to classes by of- 
ficials and others interested in governmental problems. 

7. Put civic instruction into practice by such devices as self-govern- 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 61 

merit in school, by organizing classes on the model of government 
departments, by the formation of civic leagues and community 
clubs. 
8. Cooperation with local government and local civic bodies. In- 
vitations to city officials to speak before the class and encourage- 
ment of students to visit city departments. Cooperation between 
chambers of commerce can be secured through formation of junior 
civic leagues and the development of the schools as community 
centers. 



General Conclusions. 

That the civic awakening which is evident in many schools has 
permeated only a part of the public school system is apparent 
in replies from individual cities as well as in the state courses 
of study. Such comments as these are not infrequent: "No reg- 
ular time allotted; the work is taught incidentally " — "Taught 
only in connection with United States history" — "No special 
hours for civics" — "No separate course at present — subject 
is taught more or less incidentally in the High School" — or the 
comment of a state Superintendent of Public Instruction "civics 
is one of the subjects in the course but not a regular study." 
And certain city schools merely add to history the reading of 
the state constitution and the federal Constitution. 

The committee is obliged to report that as a rule there is a 
deplorable deficiency in definite plans for courses in civics and 
also that there is a lack of anything like adequate bibliographies. 
Instances such as these are typical: After a fairly complete 
outline of all other subjects in the curriculum a note is attached 
to the section devoted to American history and civics, "time 
will be taken for civics proper "; or, "the usual aspects of the 
different units of government are studied in detail." Perchance 
a heading, "history and civics," is given with no indication 
whatever in the statement that government receives considera- 
tion, or bibliographies are appended for "history and civics" 
with not a single reference to works on government. Some 



62 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

state courses of study give no indication of the topics compre- 
hended under the title " civics " and no guide whatever to the 
valuable literature available for teacher and student. Evi- 
dence of this character might be added indefinitely, but it is 
useless to multiply instances. A letter from the chairman of a 
state committee suffices to close a rather discouraging record 
of the present situation in many communities: 

At the end of a letter I sent out with each questionnaire, I asked 
whether it was thought best to try to get a meeting to discuss the 
teaching of government before our annual state Teachers' Association 
next spring. Each member I heard from replied in the negative, 
and that is my own view on the matter. The subject of Civics Teach- 
ing has been neglected so long in the state, and the interest is so poor, 
that I feel sure we could not get a full attendance of our committee. 
Again, if we have the work that your committee is preparing before 
us as a guide and stimulus, I am sure it will be much easier to get 
something done when we do meet. 

I would like to write a more hopeful and encouraging letter than this, 
but the truth forbids. No subject is poorer taught in the rural and 
graded schools than government, and none needs attention right now 
more than it. The Normal Schools are grappling with the subject 
the best we know how, and conditions will, I hope, soon improve. 

Perhaps the chief reason why school boards, superintendents 
and teachers have been prone to ignore civics is that its impor- 
tance and the subject-matter involved have not been clearly 
brought to their attention. Few of the courses of study prepared 
by state or city departments of education give special outlines 
for courses in civics and seldom are bibliographies suggested. 
A subject which is mentioned incidentally in connection with 
history, geography or ethics and which appears worthy of only 
a few lines in a hundred page outline is not likely to be given a 
prominent place in the curriculum by teachers who depend 
upon such guides. No great improvement can be expected until 
those who prepare the school programs give as much care and 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 63 

attention to providing for civic instruction as is given to other 
subjects. Outlines by grades with references for teacher and 
pupil are indispensable, and some of the more recent programs 
issued give promise of better things for those interested in the 
improvement of training for citizenship. 

The time has come to cease berating teachers of other sub- 
jects for preempting the field and superintendents and princi- 
pals for failing to give due consideration to the vital matter of 
training for citizenship. All agree that more time and attention 
should be given to this subject than is usually allotted. The 
sole difficulty now is the determination as to what shall be in- 
cluded in this course and how that which is selected shall be 
presented. While many organizations and individuals have 
busied themselves with pointing out the deficiencies of the 
schools in this regard, few have set themselves to the task of 
preparing constructive suggestions and material to aid both 
administrators and instructors. What is needed now above 
everything else is an effort to direct the movement which is well 
on its way to bring instruction in civics to a foremost place 
among the required subjects of elementary and secondary schools. 

A few illustrations of the progress made in city schools will 
indicate the rapid improvement which is being made in the 
direction of remedying former defects. Within the past few 
years special outlines have been prepared introducing civic les- 
sons in the early grades and continuing the study throughout 
the elementary school. This introductory work is then followed 
by three to four years of social science in the high school. The 
plans of Two Rivers, Wisconsin, Marshall town, Iowa, and Berke- 
ley, California, are notable examples of this kind which have 
been brought to the attention of the committee. It is grati- 
fying to state that many cities are beginning to introduce a 
study of community and civic relations in the early grades 
and that this study takes the form of a definite consideration 
of the functions of government usually introduced in the 



64 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

seventh or eighth grade. These elementary foundations are 
supplemented and developed in the high school in a separate 
course for a half year at least and in many instances for an entire 
year. In some cases the material and content for both elemen- 
tary and high school courses are worked out with a carefully 
arranged sequence of topics and select bibliographies, such for 
example as the outline study for Yonkers, N. Y., in grades 3, 
4, and 5 ; the course of study in civil government for use in the 
Louisville schools for the 6th, 7th, and 8th grades; that of Jersey 
City, covering grades 5, 6, 7, and 8; and the systematic lessons 
of Salt Lake City in grades 1-8. Mention may be made of 
the outline for geography, history, and civics in the elementary 
schools of Indianapolis, the outline for civic and vocational 
studies of Cincinnati, and the outline for social science prepared 
by the state department of education in North Dakota as in- 
stances of progress in the right direction. Among the states in 
which the state departments of education have issued well 
prepared outlines are Maine and New York. 

The course of study in ethics used in the St. Louis schools 
deals with many phases of civic conduct and presents lessons 
on rights, duties, and the necessity of a knowledge of community 
functions. For an application of the study of civil government 
to local affairs the Schenectady course in history, geography and 
civics is suggestive; for special emphasis on city government, 
the eighth grade civics in Erie, Pennsylvania. The laboratory 
method and the actual study of government in operation is 
used with remarkable success in many city high schools. A 
committee was recently appointed by the Superintendent of 
Schools of Philadelphia to revise the civics course in the elemen- 
tary schools of the city. It is planned to have civics in the eight 
grades of the elementary school. There are many other instances 
of a sincere effort to improve and vitalize the study of civics 
and to make it a separate study in the school curriculum, but 
only these few typical instances can be cited. 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 65 

II. Some Data on the Training of Teachers. 

A. Normal Schools. 

If one were to seek for the chief cause of the deficiencies in 
the teaching of civics in the public schools that cause might 
readily be discovered in the utterly inadequate and ineffective 
training received by those who teach the subject. The de- 
ficiency in this regard will be considered with respect first to the 
normal schools and second to the colleges and universities. It 
has been impossible to secure reports from all of the normal 
schools, but from the results obtained through several of the 
state committees 1 some representative facts are available rela- 
tive to civic instruction in normal schools. These facts are 
presented merely as illustrative of present conditions. 

Provision for the training of teachers of civics can be dis- 
posed of for many such schools with the one word nothing. What 
percentage of schools are to be ranked in this class cannot be 
determined, but reports available would indicate that a large 
percentage make no effort to give instruction to prospective 
teachers. A typical instance of this kind is shown in the report 
on the normal schools of one of the states: 

There are three normal schools in this state, two of which report 
that they are offering regular courses in civics and they classify these 
courses as of high school rank. One normal school offers no civics of 
any kind. 

These courses are in charge of teachers who have had no special 
preparation for the work, and none of the devices suited to this work 
are in use. 

The courses of study in the normal are already overcrowded, and 
it will be difficult to find time for an adequate presentation of the 
subject of civics. 

The men who reported upon the work in the two normals where 
civics is taught do not hesitate to say that the ordinary teacher going 
out from the institutions is not qualified to teach this subject. 2 

1 See Appendix. 

2 Submitted by H. C. Crumpacker of the Washington state committee. 



66 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

A similar situation is to be found in New Jersey in which a 
state committee reports: "The subject of civics is not mentioned 
in the courses of study of the normal schools." 

Somewhat more encouraging replies come from some of the 
states. The California state committee reports: 

The normal school situation in California is peculiar. We have 
eight normals. One is so new as to be hardly organized. A second is 
devoted to training teachers in home economics and manual arts. 
Of the remaining six, I finally obtained some communication from 
five. From their reports, on instruction, I find no uniform practice. 
There seems to be a general tendency to accept the high school his- 
tory and civics as sufficient if upon proper credentials or examination 
it appears that the pupil did his high school work well. In this con- 
nection, you should know that students in the California normal 
schools must hold high school diplomas. In one case, the work in 
history is done with the normal students when they are in the training 
school, teaching the American history to eighth grade pupils. They 
are asked to hand in reports and, in groups, to meet the head of the 
history department. Generally, no text-book is used. Frequent 
use seems to be made of the ordinary high school text and of Bryce's 
" American Commonwealth " (Abr. ed.). The methods of instruction 
used are generally the same as used by the high school teachers, except 
that more emphasis is placed upon lectures by the instructor and 
upon the outlines and readings of the student. They all agree in 
beginning civics with the local government and seem to prefer 
the functions of government following the machinery of govern- 
ment. 

In Missouri, for example, courses in civics are offered though 
little attention is given to methods of teaching the subject. 
Provision is made for the training of teachers in Oregon normal 
schools, and in the normal schools, state university and agricul- 
tural college of New Mexico. The programs of normal schools 
in a few states which offer special instruction for prospective 
teachers are given by way of illustration as to what can be done 
to improve civic instruction. 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 67 

(a) Illinois State Normal University at Normal, Illinois. 

1. A twelve weeks' course in political science for upper grades. 

2. A year course in political science, political parties, and munic- 

ipal problems, — for prospective high school teachers. 

3. Two years' work in sociology, advanced economics, and industrial 

history. 
A half unit in civil government and one and a half units in history 
are required of all students for admission to the normal school. They 
may present five additional units in this field if they choose. Teach- 
ers of upper grades may take a twelve weeks' course in political science 
in the fall term of the senior year. A student expecting to teach 
civics would take the year's work in political science, political parties, 
and municipal problems. We should expect him to take also the two 
years' work in sociology, advanced economics, and industrial history 
and in addition to these as many courses in history as he may see fit 
to elect. 

(b) Western Illinois State Normal School, Macomb, Illinois. 
Three courses are offered for the first time: 

1. Course for country school teachers based on Beard's " Citizen- 

ship." 

2. Course for academic students, based on Garner's text and 

Child's " Government in Illinois." 

3. Course for normal school students, using Guitteau as a text, 

with assigned readings. 

(c) Southern Illinois State Normal University, Carbondale, Illinois. 
The method of study and instruction provides for a study of sub- 
jects rather than the text, though we find the text very satisfactory. 
Comparisons between our political institutions and those of other 
countries are made. This is chiefly the work of the teacher. Talks 
are sometimes made by men who have wide knowledge or experience 
in the practical workings of the various phases of our political institu- 
tions. A member of the legislature, or congress, or a judge, can bring 
a discussion very close to the pupils. Emphasis is also placed upon 
our civil institutions in the various history courses which precede 
and follow the course in civics. 

We are more and more separating our work in this subject into 
" Problems in Civics," and a "Description of the Civil Machinery." 
The problems in civics open a wide field all about us, whether we 
live in rural communities or in city organizations. There are ten 



68 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

opportunities for the exercise of an independent judgment in the 
study of civic problems to one in the study of our civil machinery. 1 

In the Kentucky state normal at Richmond two years' work 
in civics is offered, the elementary course is based on Forman's 
"Elements of Civil Government" and the advanced upon Garner's 
" Government in the United States " along with Keith's " Notes 
and Outlines in Civil Government." Books such as Bryce's 
"American Commonwealth," Garner's " Introduction to Political 
Science," Willoughby's " Rights and Duties of American Citi- 
zenship," and Beard's " American Government and Politics," 
along with current magazines, are used for select supplementary 
readings. 2 The West Kentucky Normal at Bowling Green 
gives a course of ten weeks based on Stickles, " Elements of 
Government." Supplementary readings are used extensively 
and also various devices to create an interest in practical af- 
fairs. 3 

The normal schools of North Dakota give a required course 
of 5 hours for 3 months based upon books such as Guitteau and 
"Government of North Dakota " by Boyle. Special devices in 
the way of clippings, class government and study of current 
problems are made use of to increase interest. 4 In Minnesota 
the schools devote 12 weeks to this work and one school extends 
the time to 24 weeks. Texts, reference readings and the direct 
study of local government are employed. One instructor re- 
ports " Laboratory method is used, i. e., direct study of what- 
ever public business is going on. Current events are studied by 
means of periodicals and class discussions. Class organizes 
as club and as such conducts parliamentary meetings and is 
in turn town meeting, legislature and congress. This club also 

1 Furnished by the Illinois state committee. 

2 Furnished by Professor Charles A. Keith, head of department of His- 
tory and Civics. 

3 Furnished by Professor A. M. Stickles, Chairman of Kentucky Com- 
mittee. 

4 Furnished by state committee for North Dakota. 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 69 

attempts to give actual practice to civic virtues both personally 
and cooperatively by, e. g., — keeping campus clean — planting 
shrubs — protecting birds — having club entertainments, urging 
needed public action." x 

That civics in training schools for teachers need not be neg- 
lected or ignored is indicated in the course of study of the normal 
training school of the University of Utah. Civics receives at- 
tention in the work offered to teachers for all of the grades. In 
the first grade the home, family and occupations are treated 
as contributing to the daily life of the children. Matters of 
trading, industry and the school community are considered in 
grade two. A more specialized study of occupations and social 
activities of the community follows. The city organization in 
its most important departments is introduced in grade four, 
ventilation and sanitation in grade five and matters of civic 
improvement and civic beauty in grade six. Grades seven and 
eight introduce the political organization of the city and the 
beginning of a study of state and national government. More- 
over, in the University of Utah every student who is preparing 
to teach history and civics is required to take a course in polit- 
ical science which comprises a specialized study of the govern- 
ment of the United States and the general principles of political 
science. 2 

Among the states in which liberal provisions are made for 
the training of civics teachers is Wisconsin. The State Normal 
at Oshkosh gives two courses — one to prepare teachers in the 
grammar grades, another for teachers in high schools. Full 
outlines are prepared for these courses based on the constitutions 
of Wisconsin and the United States and including a study of 
select problems and matters of current interest throughout 
the course. These outlines show how the old formal method of 
civic study may be vitalized by constant reference to current 

1 Furnished by state committee for Minnesota. 

2 Furnished by the state committee for Utah. 



70 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

conditions and problems. The School at Platteville also offers 
two courses on a similar plan. A statement of courses offered 
and methods pursued at Milwaukee and River Falls are given 
as illustrations of some suggestive courses offered in normal 
schools: 

State Normal, Milwaukee. 

Civics. Twelve weeks, five times a week, class period 50 min. re- 
quired of all students in the senior year. 

Closely related with sociology, both subjects being taught by the 
same teacher. 

Both the academic and professional sides of the subject are stressed. 
The city of Milwaukee course of study covers the subjects of police- 
man, fireman, garbage disposal, lighthouse, street cleaning, weather 
bureau, common council, a general civic knowledge of the city. 

Our course trains teachers to this end and by adaptation fits all 
teachers to teach in any community. 

The aim is to relate civics to the everyday life of the pupil, not only 
by furnishing knowledge, but also by arousing the desire and will to 
do for his community those acts which make for good citizenship. 

In connection with this work teachers are taught to tell stones 
exemplifying deeds of civic valor, poems are learned bearing upon the 
same subject and students are familiarized with literature bearing 
upon the subject. 

Visits are paid to the fire department, health department, city hall, 
garbage plant, city courts, etc. 

Out of this study arises the subject of taxes. 

Students are required to make out lesson plans for teaching the 
subjects in grades 3-7. 

They are also taught how to prepare the pupil for the use of the 
text-book and how to use the text intelligently. 

River Falls, Wisconsin. 
Foreword : 

The courses in civics offered in River Falls state normal school 
proceed upon the belief that the day of the old cut-and-dried course 
in civil government, with its memorizing of the constitutions and 
detailed analysis of government forms and machinery is past. We 
believe that from the time the child enters school until he is ready to 
leave it, it is the teachers business to socialize him, i. e., to make him 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 71 

conscious of his membership in several communities by leading him 
to see how the community helps him, how it needs him and how he 
can help it. 

I. Aims in all courses offered: 

(1) Proceeding from the home-life and school-life as basis to help 
the student-teacher to realize himself a responsible and help- 
ful member of several social groups. 

(2) To awaken and stimulate motives which shall find their culmi- 
nation in law, order, cleanliness, cheerful cooperation, and sym- 
pathetic, intelligent service. 

(3) To help the student to a life of broadened unselfishness in- 
stead of to the narrow individualism so characteristic of 
American life. In other words, to emphasize the intimate 
reciprocal relation between individual welfare in home-life 
and social welfare in community life. 

(4) To train in citizenship in its broadest, most social sense along 
such lines and to such a degree as will enable the student 
to effectually assume the responsibilities which modern com- 
munity life thrusts upon him. 

(5) To develop teachers prepared and full of a desire to give such 
training to others through well organized courses in civics in all 
of the grades in the schools in which they shall work. 

Scope of Courses. 

Civics A 

This is a course offered to the sophomore classes. The members 
of this class are of about sophomore high school grade. It proceeds 
upon the assumption that most of these people will teach in villages 
and cities. Accordingly village and city needs are emphasized, but 
students are by no means confined to what the local communities 
do and can do to meet these needs. It is our belief that the so-called 
purely "local civics " fails to give the student of this grade the essen- 
tial working acquaintance with great departments of activity in the 
larger units which the intelligent citizen needs. 

Topics suggestive of work done in Course A . 

Pioneer community life contrasted with modern community life; 
characteristics of modern complex industrial life, noting interests 
and needs of citizen consumers, citizen wage earners and citizen 



72 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

owners in various industries; protection of life, health and property; 
care of unfortunate classes; conservation; protection of laborers; 
regulation of public utilities, roads and streets; recreation; education; 
refuse disposal in urban districts; the schools and the state; community 
control of private business; social centres; conducting the people's 
business from neighborhood to nation; social, political and economic 
consequences of city growth; penal reform; making of Americans; 
juvenile courts; the part the teacher should take in village and city 
life; should a teacher teach the truth at any cost; how to make a 
community survey. 

Civics A. i 

This course is designed to meet the needs of those who are planning 
to teach in rural schools. (These students, as a rule, are of about 
second year high school grade though there are some who are high 
school graduates.) It studies many of the problems and functions 
in their more important aspects suggested in Course A, but empha- 
sizes especially rural community problems and activities. 

Topics additional to some of those suggested in Course A: Rural 
roads and road-sides, connection between good roads and social, 
economic and political phases of rural life; rural homes and their 
enemies; rural sanitation and hygiene; waste disposal in rural com- 
munities; how to organize improvement associations in school; how 
our city cousins live; how the rural school may lead the community; 
how to get the aid of department officials in solving rural problems; 
the needs of rural schools; how to make a rural survey. 

Advanced Civics (18 weeks) 

This course is an advanced course open to election by juniors, 
seniors and post-graduate students. It is designed to fit the needs of 
those students desiring to make a more thorough study of the lines 
of work suggested in Course A. In it, for example, party government, 
methods and machinery are critically studied; evils of party domina- 
tion in local affairs are described and discussed; causes and effects 
of rapid urbanization are studied; dangers of commercial and re- 
actionary domination of schools are pointed out in order that the 
student teacher may know what to expect and prepare against; 
recent government reforms are critically considered; the " Wisconsin 
Idea" is analyzed and discussed; the dangers of newspapers that do 
not publish the truth are pointed out; the need of teachers who dare 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 73 

to teach the truth is explained and investigated. Many of the topics 
in Course A are here considered more broadly. 

In all of this work an attempt is made to have the student acquire 
a working acquaintance with the great organs of public opinion. 
Assigned readings, special reports and original investigations are given. 
Government reports and bulletins are used constantly, and at every 
opportunity participation in local civic activities is encouraged. 

Courses in History Methods for Primary and Grammar Grade 
Teachers (9 weeks each) 

In both of these courses, in connection with outlining and criti- 
cising courses of history for the grades and studying special methods 
of presentation, courses in civics for all of the grades are presented 
and the method of teaching is explained. 

The head of the department of history and civics is at present con- 
ducting a nine weeks' demonstration course in seventh and eighth 
grade civics in the model school for the purpose of indicating to stu- 
dent teachers the method and possibilities of the " newer civics." 

Statement of Methods, Aids and Materials in all Courses 

Offered 

(1) In all courses opportunities are sought to bring the student 
into actual working acquaintance with community work. For ex- 
ample: 

(a) The advice and assistance of officials from neighborhood to 
nation on various questions have been sought by students and ob- 
tained. In this way students have come to know how the teacher 
citizen can secure helpful assistance for her own classes and com- 
munity. 

(b) Unsightly, unhealthful conditions in the immediate vicinity 
have been reported to proper authorities. 

(c) Local officials have addressed the class upon the work they are 
doing. 

(d) A list of safety first suggestions in case of fire has been pre- 
pared for the normal school students. 

(e) A waste paper receptacle has been constructed and provided 
by civics students as a part of a "clean campus" campaign. 

(2) Materials mentioned below are available to all students of 
civics, economics and sociology in a "laboratory " or study room es- 
pecially equipped with display racks, tables and shelves for this kind 



74 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

of work. In this connection a real beginning has been made at super- 
vised study. 

(3) In all courses the point of view is that of the person preparing 
to present this gospel and material to others. 

(4) Classes in civics are deformalized as much as free, sensible, 
truth-seeking investigation and discussion require. 

(5) Text-books, bulletins and other illustrative material have been 
used, not as the core of instruction, but rather as helpful sources of 
information to which one may go to find out how to get help in satis- 
fying common needs. 

(6) Through student committees new, up-to-date, descriptive 
charts, bulletins, reports and much descriptive material have been 
obtained from various civic organizations and departments of govern- 
ment work. 

(7) It is felt that no greater mistake could be made than to make 
these courses " text-book courses." A mass of material lies right at 
hand, much of it closely touching the daily lives of students. Work- 
ing this material up for use is not the easiest way, but it has paid — 
e. g., in the study of rural roads and road problems in Course 1 A 
special reports were prepared upon particular roads in our communi- 
ties; photographs showing differences between faulty and careful, 
scientific construction and bulletins and pictures issued by various 
commissions and associations have been carefully studied. 1 

Normal training schools such as the School of Pedagogy, 
Philadelphia, give specialized courses in government equiv- 
alent to those offered in other colleges and universities with 
special attention to problems and the methods of teaching the 
subject. A great advance would be made if more schools could 
establish departments in the allied subjects of government, 
economics and sociology and the instruction in normal schools 
could be raised to the standard attained in a few notable in- 
stances. 

B. Colleges. 

The increase of courses in colleges and universities along the 
lines of political science, economics and sociology has resulted 

1 Furnished by the Wisconsin state committee. 



ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 75 

in the preparation of a type of teacher very well equipped to do 
effective teaching in the high school. In most of the cases 
where courses in civics are offered along the lines of the new 
civics it is stated that work was taken in college in one if not all 
of the above subjects and frequently the major subject is in this 
field. Perhaps more than any other course the college instruc- 
tion in American Government, which has improved markedly 
in the last decade, has tended toward the improvement of civic 
instruction in the public schools. Courses in comparative gov- 
ernment and state government too have been useful. A report, 
of courses now given in colleges along with some suggestions for 
improvement is included in a subsequent portion of this report, 
and it is unnecessary to deal further with the matter here. 
Suffice it to say that many of the courses given in departments 
of political science are too specialized and technical to meet the 
needs of prospective teachers, and special efforts to make pro- 
vision in this regard are surprisingly meagre. 

With the exception of some incidental attention given in 
courses for training history teachers, civic instruction in the 
public schools has received exceedingly little consideration by 
departments of political science. A few exceptions will serve 
to indicate an awakening realization of responsibility along this 
line. In the college of education of the university of Minnesota 
provision is made for a teacher's certificate in government com- 
prising nine credits in political science and eighteen credits in 
history (total required for B. A. degree, 120 credits). Lectures 
on teaching government in the secondary schools are given in 
cooperation with the department of history. The university of 
Wisconsin offers a teacher's course devoted to methods of teach- 
ing government in secondary schools for two hours throughout 
one-half year. In the summer sessions of some universities 
courses are offered for the training of history teachers and part 
of the time is devoted to methods of instruction in governmental 
affairs and a few schools give separate courses for teachers of 



76 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

government in secondary schools. This matter appears to the 
committee of such significance that at an early day a special 
committee should be appointed by the Association to con- 
sider the training of teachers of government in the public 
schools. 



PART III 

COURSES OF STUDY 

SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY AND METHODS OF 
APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT 

The committee has not attempted the preparation of outlines 
for standard courses in government for the various grades of 
the public schools. As instruction in the subject according to 
modern methods is quite recent it is natural that the content 
of courses and methods of instruction is not as yet carefully 
systematized. Moreover, the subject of government must 
necessarily be modified in both content and method in accord- 
ance with the varying conditions and needs of different grades 
of schools and diverse community conditions. This variation 
is so great and so all important, particularly with respect to 
instruction in state, local and municipal government, that it 
becomes well-nigh impossible to adopt uniform courses or 
methods and to teach government effectively according to any 
standard plan. 

Where civics is effectively taught at the present time it is 
frequently the practice to use one or more of the best available 
guides in the preparation of an outline or syllabus for local 
use. This is a practice which ought to be encouraged in prefer- 
ence to the somewhat slavish habit of adopting indiscriminately 
so-called standard courses. Every possible aid and assistance 
should of course be available to instructors, principals and super- 
intendents in the preparation of such outlines. It was with the 
idea in mind that aid and encouragement are desired toward 
the preparation of such outlines that the committee has under- 
taken to offer some suggestions as to courses of study and meth- 

77 



H 



78 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

ods. of approach. It is understood that these suggestions are 
merely tentative and experimental. 

A list of titles on the teaching of civics and some works which 
will be useful in a teacher's library and for supplementary read- 
ings are also offered herewith. Select bibliographies with criti- 
cal suggestions and notes for the various grades and for the use 
of teachers remain to be prepared. A committee 1 is at work 
on the preparation of such bibliographies, but owing to the fact 
that considerable time will be required to complete this work 
it seemed advisable to present some preliminary lists. 

i. Suggestions for Civic Topics in the Elementary Grades. 
A. Grades I-III 

It should be the purpose of the work in the first grades to lay 
a foundation of good citizenship by developing in the child 
some of the fundamental civic virtues. Obedience, cleanliness, 
orderliness, courtesy, helpfulness, punctuality, truthfulness, 
thoroughness, honesty, courage, perseverance, self-control, — all 
these, and others that might be named, may be taken up w T ith 
the class, and somewhat in the order named. Both a knowledge 
of the right, and a desire to act rightly, may be developed in the 
pupils through stories, poems, memory gems, games, dramati- 
zation, and other class exercises. And these should be accom- 
panied by constant care on the part of the teacher that the chil- 
dren shall be exemplifying these virtues in their daily conduct. 
Thus, it will be seen that the civics work of these early grades 
can be little less than a continuous lesson in good morals and 
good manners. 

The object throughout is to impress on the children that they 
too can take part in the better citizenship movement by co- 
operating with the group in the schoolroom, on the playground 

1 Professors Edgar Dawson, New York, W. F. Dodd, Chicago, E. M. 
Borchard, Washington, D. C. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 79 

or in the home. The smallest boy or girl in the first primary 
grade can learn to refrain from doing those things which go 
against the welfare of the group, and — quite as important — to 
do those things which will help promote community welfare. 

B. Grades IV-VI 

The course in civics here suggested for the first three grades 
has aimed simply to lay the foundation for good citizenship by 
developing in the mind and in the motor activities of the child 
some of the fundamental civic virtues, especially with reference 
to school and home life. But with the coming of the fourth 
year — if not earlier — the civic experience of the child should be 
widened and made more diversified. He should now begin to 
think more clearly of the community life round about him and of 
how dependent he and his family are on the daily services that 
the community is rendering. 

Probably the simplest form of community service, and the 
most easily understood by the child, is that rendered by those 
who supply his family with the necessities of life: food, water, 
clothing, shelter, fuel, medical aid. The interest of the com- 
munity in the furnishing of these necessities can be shown and 
also at times the control by the community of those who render 
the services. 

The study of the family, home, school and neighborhood can be 
broadened to include the study of civic life from personal con- 
duct with people and life around them. Children should be led 
to observe their duties, rights, and privileges as they exist in 
the family, home, school and neighborhood. They should be 
trained to understand that every right and privilege has a cor- 
responding duty and obligation; that they owe love, gratitude, 
respect, and obedience to the parents for their love, protection 
and support; that rules and laws are necessary in the family, 
home, school, and neighborhood for the comfort, protection and 



80 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

general welfare of all; that they should be honest, industrious 
and kind. 1 

In the selection of these topics, and in the method of develop- 
ing them with the class, the teacher should begin with the live 
interests of the pupils and should deal so far as possible only with 
actual situations. Both the services rendered by the community 
and the reciprocal duties he owes to it in return can be discussed 
by the class, with the aid of the teacher. And the work of all 
these grades will have partially failed of its purpose if the chil- 
dren have not acquired a genuine respect for all occupations 
based on an appreciation of the service rendered by each. 

With the above considerations in mind, and with the same 
aims in view, it will be an easy matter to widen the pupil's 
knowledge of community service by extending the work so as 
to cover corporate services rendered by it. However, in these 
grades the "biographical" or personal method should be used 
exclusively. 

The children are still pre-adolescent — still in the individual- 
izing, hero-worshipping stage where Mr. Policeman or Mr. 
Fireman may be or become an object of great interest, while 
the police department or the fire department are mere abstrac- 
tions. 

The policeman, the fireman, the street-sweeper, the garbage 
collector, the postman; water, gas, electricity, the telephone, 
the trolley car, — all these and more, if the school is located in a 
town of even moderate size, are familiar objects to the child and 
lend themselves readily to class discussion and reports. A visit 
to a police or fire station is easily arranged for, and the class will 
derive keen enjoyment from such a trip when it is to result 
later in an intelligent discussion of the community service 
rendered by the agency visited. Another series of class talks — 
based on visits, wherever possible, by one or more of the class — 
will include some of the educational agencies, such as libraries 

1 From Course of Study and Syllabus in Civics, City of New York, p. 8. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 81 

and museums. And during the spring term what more natural 
than trips to nearby parks or other pleasure resorts, where the 
children may learn what it means to care for trees and flowers 
and shrubbery! 

In grades five and six the problems of city and country life 
may be introduced. The difficulties of securing pure food, good 
and wholesome water and the advantages of well lighted, clean 
and well ventilated houses, good roads and streets, as well as 
the communication of disease and quarantine, parks and play- 
grounds in their effect upon the community, and similar 
matters of community welfare may be made the basis of class 
discussions. 

Finally, time should be saved for at least some considera- 
tion of the important industries of the town or country; or, at 
least, of some of those occupations that enter vitally into the 
lives of the children. To neglect this, especially in an industrial 
community where a large proportion of the children leave school 
all too early, is to fail in an important particular. 

To sum up — civics teaching in the elementary school divides 
itself naturally into three periods — that of the first three or 
four grades in which emphasis is given to some of the funda- 
mental civic virtues as applied to the home, to the school and 
to the neighborhood; second — that of grades four to six in which 
more specific instruction may be undertaken as to local affairs, 
with emphasis upon some of the functions which government 
performs and which citizens enjoy as members of a community; 
third — that of grades seven, eight, and nine — junior high school. 
In these grades instruction may be made more definite. A text- 
book may be used to advantage, and while the emphasis is still 
upon functions some attention should be given to the machin- 
ery of government — local, state, and national. 

The presentation of civic topics in the elementary grades is 
still in the experimental stage. No well defined plan or uniform 
method has been developed. It is customary to combine this 



82 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

instruction with ethics, history or geography. Such outlines 
as are now in use in Berkeley, California, Indianapolis, Indiana, 
Marshalltown, Iowa, New York City, Philadelphia, Two Rivers 
and Superior, Wisconsin, point the way to a type of civic lessons 
which is gradually being systematized into a fairly well defined 
plan and method of approach. Those who are charged with 
the preparation of outlines and schedules for the elementary 
grades should be sure to consult all of the above outlines as well 
as others now in preparation. 1 In order to be effective, civic 
training must be as continuous and as cumulative in character 
and method as that of the study of our mother tongue. And 
our public schools, supported as they are by public taxation, 
should particularly be made to function as nurseries of good 
citizenship. 

2. Community Civics for Junior High School. 

For the junior high school course some good texts and well 
prepared outlines are available. The most definite and satis- 
factory plan has been formulated by a special committee of the 
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education for 
the National Education Association, consisting of J. Lynn 
Barnard, Chairman, F. W. Carrier, Principal, Wilmington 
(Mass.) High School, Arthur W. Dunn, Specialist in Civic 
Education for the Bureau of Education and Clarence D. Kings- 
ley, High School Inspector, Massachusetts. Through Bulletin 
No! 23, 191 s, of the Bureau of Education the outline prepared 
by this committee is rendered easily accessible to all who are 
interested. In order to present suggestions for a unified course 
throughout all the grades of the public school the chairman of 
this special committee has prepared a condensed statement 

1 Teachers who do not have the definite guidance of such an outline will 
find " A Course in Citizenship M by Cabot, Andrews, Hill, and McSkimmon 
(Houghton) very well adapted for the beginning grades and may secure 
assistance and guidance from the monograph on "The Teaching of Civics 
by Mabel Hill (Houghton). 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 83 

based upon the Bureau of Education Bulletin, with a few re- 
visions and additions. Those who desire a more complete dis- 
cussion of methods and a more extensive outline of topics with 
some suggestive lessons are referred to this Bulletin. 

A. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

I. What is Community Civics? 

The social study to which the name "community civics " 
has been applied is well defined or described in Civic Education 
Circular No. 1, issued by the United States Bureau of Education: 

"The aim of community civics is to help the child to know his com- 
munity — not merely a lot of facts about it, but the meaning of his 
community life, what it does for him and how it does it, what the 
community has a right to expect from him, and how he may fulfil 
his obligation: meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities 
and habits of good citizenship. 

" Community civics lays emphasis upon the local community be- 
cause (1) it is the community with which every citizen, especially 
the child, comes into most intimate relations, and which is always 
in the foreground of experience; (2) it is easier for the child, as for 
any citizen, to realize his membership in the local community, to feel 
a sense of personal responsibility for it, and to enter into actual co- 
operation with it, than is the case with the national community. 

"But our nation and our state are communities, as well as our city 
or village, and a child is a citizen of the larger as of the smaller com- 
munity. The significance of the term ' community civics' does not lie 
in its geographical implications, but in its implication of community 
relations, of a community of interests. ... It is a question of point 
of view; and community civics applies this point of view to the study 
of the national community as well as to the study of the local com- 
munity." 

II. Specific Aims of Community Civics. 

To accomplish its part in the training for citizenship com- 
munity civics should aim primarily to lead the pupil: 

1. To see the importance and significance of the elements of 



84 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

community welfare in their relation to himself, and to the com- 
munities of which he is a member; 

2. To know the social agencies, governmental and voluntary, 
that exist to secure these elements of community welfare; 

3. To recognize his civic obligations, present and future, and 
to respond to them by appropriate action. 

III. Elements of Welfare Suggested as Topics. 

For this course in community civics, it is suggested that the 
following elements of welfare be studied as topics: 

Health; Protection of Life and Property; Recreation; Educa- 
tion; Civic Beauty; Communication; Transportation; Migra- 
tion; Wealth; Charities; Correction. 

As each community function is taken up, the governmental 
agency or mechanism which performs this service should be 
carefully noted as well as any private organization that may be 
cooperating with that agency. Later in the course, a review of 
these various departments, bureaus, commissions or associations 
— both as to how they are organized and as to how they are 
financed — should be conducted; and in such a way as to show 
clearly the structure of our government, local, state and na- 
tional. And, finally, care must be taken to give some considera- 
tion to such important topics as the nomination of candidates, 
party campaigns, and the simpler sort of court proceedings. 

The attempt has been made to arrange these elements of 
welfare in an order that seems suitable for teaching, but each 
teacher will be obliged to exercise judgment in adapting the order 
to the needs and current interests of the class. 

IV. Social Facts upon which the Method should be Based. 

The pupil is a young citizen with real present interests at 
stake. He is dependent upon the community for his education, 
for recreation, for the protection of health, life and property, 
for the beauty of his surroundings, for the ease with which he 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 85 

may communicate with his friends. Moreover, his cooperation 
in many phases of community life is quite as important as that 
of the adult, especially in the form of public opinion. Hence it 
is the task of the teacher not to attempt to create an artificial 
interest for future use, but to develop existing interests and 
present citizenship. 

The amount of civic information possessed collectively by 
an ordinary class of wide-awake young citizens twelve to fifteen 
years of age is surprisingly large. But it is fragmentary, and 
usually unorganized. It is, therefore, important to teach the 
pupils how to test and organize this knowledge, always re- 
membering that they will be most ready to act on those convic- 
tions which they have helped to form for themselves. 

It should be remembered, finally, that the class has the es- 
sential characteristics of a community, and that, therefore, the 
methods by which the class exercises are conducted are of the 
utmost importance in the cultivation of civic qualities and hab- 
its. Cooperation in contributing information; the give-and-take 
of class discussion; regard for the contributions and opinions 
of others; personal responsibility for the class welfare; the at- 
titude of the teacher as a fellow-citizen with the pupils, and a 
learner along with them: — all of these help to cultivate interest, 
judgment, initiative, cooperation, power to organize knowledge, 
and other qualities of good citizenship. In short, the class 
should exemplify the right community spirit. 

V. Method of Teaching Community Civics. 

The study of each topic of this kind should consist of the 
following steps: 

1. Approach to the Topic. 

In beginning the study of an element of welfare, the teacher 
should lead the pupils to realize its importance to themselves, 
to their neighbors, and to the community, and to see the de- 
pendence of the individual upon social agencies. 



86 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Much depends upon the method of approach. The planning 
of an approach appropriate to a given topic and applicable to 
a given class calls for ingenuity and resourcefulness. It is es- 
pecially important to draw upon the experience and observa- 
tion of the class — to have the class consciously pool their ex- 
perience. 

2. Investigation of Agencies. 

The knowledge of the class should now be extended by a 
concrete and more or less detailed investigation of the agencies 
through which society aims to secure this particular element of 
welfare. These investigations should consist largely of first- 
hand observation and study of local conditions. 

It is advised that the first subject considered in the course be 
investigated by the entire class under the direction of the teacher, 
so as to get a method of work. After that, agencies may be 
studied sometimes by the class as a whole and sometimes by 
groups of pupils, the choice of procedure depending on the diffi- 
culty of the agency, its importance, and the degree to which the 
class has secured a social point of view. 

The subjects which are comprehended under each topic are 
so many that no attempt should be made to have the class as a 
whole study them all intensively. Such an attempt would 
result in superficiality, kill interest, and defeat the purpose of 
the course. In general the more skillful the teacher, the more will 
he find which the class can do profitably under any agency. It 
will often be found advisable to study in detail one or more 
agencies under a given topic, and then to make a rapid survey 
of others. 

In selecting the agencies for intensive study it will be prefer- 
able, especially at the start, to select those which are either: 

(a) of current interest to the community, — such as a proposed 
state road, new health regulations in view of a recent epidemic, 
or a new system of fire protection; 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 87 

(b) of immediate interest to the class, — such as an athletic 
field, a new school building, moving picture shows, school 
lunches, rules of athletic associations, boy scouts; or 

(c) of special interest to the teacher, — where the teacher is 
so familiar with all the agencies that he can deal with them effect- 
ively, thus making the study more profitable to the pupils. 

3. Recognition of Responsibility. 

A lesson in community civics is not complete unless it leaves 
with the pupil a sense of his personal responsibility and results 
in right action. To attain these ends is perhaps the most diffi- 
cult and delicate task of the teacher. A proper sense of respon- 
sibility can only grow out of a correct perception of a social 
situation, and a desire to act, from a realization of vital interest 
in the situation. 

A distinction should be made between the present and future 
civic duties of junior high school pupils. They have some civic 
responsibilities now; others await them in adult life. They must 
be prepared for both. The teacher should be careful to cultivate 
judgment as to the kinds of things for which the pupils should 
assume responsibility now. For example, pupils can hardly 
have any large responsibility for the water supply of their com- 
munity; but they can help to conserve it by avoiding waste 
from water taps, and they can help to prevent the spread of dis- 
ease by using individual drinking cups and by cultivating a 
sentiment at home against contaminating the sources of water 
supply, especially if wells or springs are used. 

A distinction should be made also between the duties of the 
citizen and the duties of the official. The citizen selects the 
official and should hold him to his task. The citizen must know 
the purpose to be achieved, the official must find out how to 
achieve it; the citizen needs a sense of values, the official needs 
technical knowledge; the citizen must be a competent employer, 
the official a competent executive. 



88 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

In the past much civic instruction has been ineffective be- 
cause it has left the pupil to work out for himself the applica- 
tion of general principles to conduct. The translation of prin- 
ciples into conduct is more difficult than the comprehension of 
the principles themselves. It is largely a matter of motive, 
reinforced by judgment and initiative. To cultivate these is 
the teacher's greatest task. Accordingly, the natural human 
motive of self-interest should be recognized. It is not only 
legitimate, but in every way desirable, to demonstrate the rela- 
tion of civic conduct to self-interest, and to utilize the latter as 
a channel through which to develop a broad spirit of service. 
Thus the pupil may come to perceive that his interest is a part 
of the common interest, and so arrive at an ideal altruism that 
shall lead to the placing of the interest of others — of the com- 
munity — above the interest of self. 

B. THE COURSE OF STUDY 

General Outline 

The main topics have already been given under the title, 
" Elements of Welfare"; and mention was there made of the 
need and use of various social agencies to secure these "ele- 
ments." It will now be in order to present some important 
topics and then to illustrate the method by which these may be 
developed with a class. For suggestions as to additional agen- 
cies under each of these headings teachers are referred to the 
Bulletin on the Teaching of Community Civics. 

Topic L Health 

The number of agencies in the following list to be investigated 
in detail will depend upon the time available and the relative 
importance of this topic, health, in the community and for the 
class. Community methods and agencies: 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 89 

To secure Pure Air, Pure Water, Pure Food. 

For Exercise, for Cleanliness. 

To avoid Contagion, to restrict the use of Drugs. 

. Topic II. Protection of Life and Property 

Agencies for the protection of life and property such as 

Police, Courts (civil and criminal), Legal Aid Societies. 

Militia, State Constabulary. 

Army, Navy. 

Patents and Copyrights. 

Topic III. Recreation 

Recreation agencies and the community control of them such 
as the following may be discussed: 

Playgrounds, athletic fields and gymnasiums; Public baths, recrea- 
tion piers and dance halls; Concerts, theatres and moving pictures; 
Botanical and zoological gardens, libraries, museums and art galler- 
ies; Fish and game protection and national parks. 

Topic IV. Education 

In the same spirit and by similar methods such educational 
agencies and community functions as the following may be 
taken up for discussion so far as time and circumstances warrant: 

1. Kindergartens, elementary schools (day, evening, summer, special), 

high schools (day, evening, summer, special), private and co- 
operative schools; Higher institutions (different kinds and pur- 
poses of each) ; Correspondence schools (use and limitations) ; Sum- 
mer Chautauquas; Winter reading circles; Schools for defectives 
(blind, deaf, etc.) 

2. Educational agencies such as 

Public education associations; Home and School associations; 
The Foundations (Sage, General, Education Board, Carnegie 
Foundation for the advancement of Teaching); U. S. Bureau of 
Education. 



90 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Topic V. Civic Beauty 

The following is a list of topics rather than of agencies; but 
their study, of course, involves a consideration of corresponding 
agencies: 

Beauty in the home and the school as evidenced in the care of lawns, 

gardens, trees. 
School architecture, improvement of grounds, school gardening. 

Beauty in the street: 

The street plan; Construction and repair; Cleanliness; Provision for 
rubbish; Unsightly objects — Telephone and electric light 
poles, bill-boards; Care and preservation of trees; Noise; 
Lighting at night. 

City — or town — planning: 

Street plan; Grouping of public buildings; Industrial and residen- 
tial sections; Regulation of height of buildings; Preservation of 
natural beauty. 

Topic VI. Communication 
Agencies such as: 
Postal service; Telegraph; Ocean cables; Wireless; Telephone. 

Topic VII. Transportation 

Agencies and the community service rendered by each: 

Roads, Bridges and Streets: 

Government control — county, state and nation. 
Highway Commissions. 

Department of Agriculture (Office of Public Roads). 
Post Office Department (Rural Delivery). 

Natural waterways; rivers, lakes, ocean. 
State bureaus and commissions. 
National 

Department of Commerce (Coast Survey, Bureau 

of Navigation, Bureau of Lighthouses). 
Department of the Treasury (Life-saving stations). 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 91 

Department of War (River and Harbor Improvement). 
Department of Agriculture (Weather Bureau). 
International Waterways Commission. 
Interstate Commerce Commission. 

Railroads. 

Private corporations; State (railway or public service com- 
. mission); National (Interstate Commerce Commission). 

Electric railways. 

Urban; surface, elevated, subway. 

Interurban: Private corporations; City governments (fran- 
chises, commissions); State governments (public service 
commissions); National (Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion). 

Steamship and other navigation lines. 

Topic VIII. Migration 

The following are some of the agencies that have more or less 
influence on migration: 

Federal Bureau of Immigration and Inspection Service. 

Federal Bureau of Naturalization. 

State departments of labor and employment bureaus. 

Steamship companies; Railroad companies; Corporation labor 
agents. 

Colonization societies; Immigration societies and other volun- 
tary organizations in the interest of immigrants; Chambers of Com- 
merce and similar organizations that seek to induce industries to 
establish themselves in cities; Wheat growers' associations, agricul- 
tural exhibits, county and state fairs, etc. 

Topic IX. Wealth 

The following are some of the agencies that might be con- 
sidered: 

1. Use and control of wealth in the community. 

2. Government control of property and wealth. 

State bureaus and commissions. 
Agriculture, labor, highways, etc.; Employment Bureaus. 



92 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

State universities, agricultural and technical schools. 
State legislation. 
Wage laws, accident liability, labor of women and children, 
working conditions. 

Federal departments, bureaus, commissions, etc. 

Treasury, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Interior, Interstate 
Commerce Commission, etc.; Consular system; Federal Em- 
ployment Bureaus; Federal Reserve Board. 

Federal legislation (consider the legislation of the present or last 
session of Congress). 

Topic X. Charities 

Some of the important agencies under this topic are the fol- 
lowing: 

Local and state institutions for dependents and defectives; City 
and state departments of charities; Charity organization societies; 
Voluntary charitable organizations; Churches; Fraternal organ- 
izations; Settlements; Relief and social service departments of 
business corporations; Schools of philanthropy; Philanthropic 
foundations; Labor unions; Employment bureaus. 

Topic XI. Correction 

Agencies mainly instrumental in dealing with delinquents 
are: 

Rules and laws: 

School regulations; Local ordinances; State laws; National laws. 

For law enforcement: 

Machinery of school administration and discipline; Parental, 
truant and special schools; Reform schools and reformatories; 
Jails and prisons; Labor colonies; Juvenile courts; Courts for 
adults; Probation and parole; Prison reform associations. 

Topic XII. How Governmental Agencies are Conducted 
Note the following, among others: 

Direct self-govern nient : 

The town meeting; National and state Constitutions as repre- 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 93 

senting the direct will of the people; Recent development of the 
initiative, referendum and recall. 

Representative self-government: 

Reasons for; Methods of representation; Proportional represen- 
tation. 

Division of governing powers: 

Local, state, national; Reason for such division; Relations be- 
tween state and local, between state and national. 

Separation of powers: 

Legislative, executive, judicial; Reasons for; Degrees of separa- 
tion in national, state, county, and city governments; Checks 
and balances. 

Selection of representatives: 

The suffrage; Nominations; Conventions; Direct primaries; 
Preferential primaries; Elections; Party systems; Short ballot. 
The civil service, civil service reform. 
Machine politics. 

Topic XIII. General Organization of Government l 

At this point specific attention may well be given to the ma- 
chinery of government. While incidental instruction as to 
governmental agencies has necessarily been imparted through- 
out the previous functional study, the course will fail in one of its 
chief purposes if the various units of government are not now 
considered as a whole and if some special attention is not given 
to government organization. Teachers will of course exercise 
judgment as to the extent to which these topics may be treated 
and adapt the instruction so as to meet the needs of junior 
citizens. 

County Government: County Commissioners: Sheriff, Attorney, 
Clerk, Judges, Treasurer, Assessor, Tax Collector, Surveyor, 
Superintendent of Schools, Physician, Probation Officer, Au- 
ditor. 

1 In the preparation of Topic XIII, aid was received from the New York 
Course of Study for Elementary Schools. 



94 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

City Government: Charter; Executive — Mayor; Legislative — Board 
of Aldermen, City Council or Commissioners; Judiciary — Civil, 
Criminal, Children's Court. 
Departments: purpose, organization, cost. 

Health, Education, Public Utilities, Fire, Police and Public 
Safety, Finance, Parks, Playgrounds and Recreation facilities, 
Civil Service. 

State Government: Constitution. 

Executive — Governor. 

Legislative — House of Representatives, Senate. 

Judiciary — Supreme Courts and Courts of Appeal, District 
Courts. 

Boards, Commissions and Commissioners such as: Banking, In- 
surance, Education, Charities and Correction, Health, Public 
Utilities, State Institutions, etc. 

National Government: Constitution. 
Executive — President and Cabinet. 

Legislative — Congress: Senate and House of Representatives. 
Judicial — Supreme Court — Circuit Courts of Appeals — Dis- 
trict Courts. 
Special attention ma) 7 be given to the Bureau of Education, 
Public Health Service, Department of Agriculture, etc. 

Topic XIV. How Governmental Agencies are Financed 
The following may be investigated: 
Sources of revenue. 

Methods of taxation. 

Budget making; Appropriations; Assessment; Equalization; Ex- 
emptions; Imposts and excises. 

Methods of checking expenditures. 

Reports; Audits; Budget exhibits. 

Methods of borrowing money. 

Topic XV. How Voluntary Agencies arc Conducted and Financed 

Numerous private organizations — local, state and national — 
that cooperate with governmental agencies have already been 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 95 

noted in the foregoing discussion of the agencies through 
which the elements of welfare are served. But it may prove 
worth while, if time permits, to discuss a few of these vol- 
untary agencies in greater detail. Following is a partial list: 

Private hospital; playground association; charity organization society; 
social settlement; board of trade or chamber of commerce; child 
labor organization; humane society; bureau of municipal re- 
search; consumers' league; local newspaper. 

Method 

The method suggested for this course in civics has already 
been briefly described, with its three-fold division of (1) Ap- 
proach to Topic; (2) Investigation of Agencies; (3) Recognition of 
Responsibility. This method is worked out in detail for a few 
topics in the Bulletin on the Teaching of Community Civics, 
to which the teacher is referred for specific suggestions. The 
plan for one of the topics is reproduced by way of illustration, 
along with a model lesson on Roads specially adapted for use in 
rural schools. 

It must be remembered that all the " elements" are appli- 
cable alike to a small village or to a great city, while the "agen- 
cies " must vary with time and place. Only such agencies as are 
of interest and importance to the class or to the community at 
large should be considered at all. This, of course, will call for 
careful selection and emphasis. 

Protection of Life and Property. 

Approach to the Topic. 

One way to approach this topic is through a discussion of some 
dramatic accident that has occurred in the vicinity, or that has 
gained prominence through the newspapers, such as the burning 
of a part of Salem, Mass., the shirtwaist factory fire in New 
York City, or the recent floods in Ohio and Indiana, and then to 



oo TBE TEACH I NG 0E GOVERNMENT 

exhibit statistics (which the pupils themselves may gather) to 
show that accidents less dramatic but of common occurrence 
result, in the aggregate, in more terrible loss of life and greater 
destruction of property. Instances may be found in the annual 
loss from tire, the railroad or mining accidents of the past year, 
injuries occurring in the ordinary course of traffic in the streets 
of a large city, or the loss of life and limb on the Fourth of 
July. 

Compare the attitude of different people toward the removal 
of causes of accidents: for example, the attitude of the Chinese 
toward the inundation of their rivers as compared with that of 
the people along the Mississippi. Why the difference? (Note, 
however, the unnecessary loss of life and property in this coun- 
try from periodic floods.) Compare the frequency of railroad 
accidents in this country with that in England and in Germany. 

Note the growing movement in behalf of protection of life and 
property in this country as illustrated by the "safety tirst' 1 
movement. What has brought about the changed attitude? 
Give illustrations from your own community. 



kA O v 



sUgation of .1 

The study of means adopted to protect life and property 
should commence with conditions that are very near to the 
pupils. In case the investigation starts with fire prevention 
in the home, information on such lines as the following may be 
sought : 



U£J 



Of what material is your house built? Is there need for fire-escapes 
and are such provided? Is there any danger of tire from stoves or 
furnaces in your house? Is gasoline or any other explosive kept in the 
house and if so what care is taken of it? Is there any danger from 
lighted matches? If you have electricity how i> the current insulated? 
In case a tire broke out what steps would you take:* Where is the 
nearest fire-alarm box? How would you send in an alarm? Is the 
water supply adequate to extinguish a lire? With reference to how 
many of these points are there laws in your community? 



CGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 97 

It is better, however, instead of asking the pupils detailed, 
leading questions such as those above, tc to draw them out 

as to the sources of danger to life and property in their own 
homes. Let them mention materials of construction, fire- 
escapes, matches, etc. From their miscellaneous list, brought 
out by free and general discussion, a corrected and classified 
list may be compiled and placed on the blackboard in good 
order as a basis for further di a. This will stimulate 

initiative and give the pupils practice in organizing their own 
knowledge. 

A similar plan may be followed with regard to the provisions 
for safety in the school building and elsewhere. 

Responsibility of the Citizen. 

Even a cursory analysis of the causes of the fires occurring 
annually in a community, together with an exhibit of the c 
to the community, will of itself suggest the heavy responsibility 
resting on each citizen for the prevention of fire. A study of 
the causes of accidents on the street will impress the same idea. 

Habits of destruction and vandalism,when they prevail among 
boys, are not always easy to overcome. But more can be done 
to this end by a vivid demonstration of the social consequences 
of such practices through an array of concrete situations which 
will of themselves appeal to self-interest, to the spirit of the 
"square deal," and to a proud sense of personal responsibility, 
than by preachment. 

Pupils should be taught the proper use of safety devices and 
the precautions that they should take in order to protect both 
themselves and their fellow-citizens. In one school in a large 
city a model of a street car platform was placed in the gymna- 
sium and the pupils were trained to get off the car facing forward. 
The importance of fire drills in the schools should be thoroughly 
discussed, and these drills held often enough to secure rapid and 
orderly emptying of the building. Similarly the class should 



98 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

discuss the proper procedure in case of a fire in any other build- 
ing, such as a theatre. Probably in every town and city there 
are devices, such as fire-alarm boxes, that the local authorities 
would gladly have pupils trained to use correctly. Quite likely 
the fire department would lend a sample box to the school so 
that each pupil could learn the proper method of turning in an 
alarm. The class may discuss the steps that should be taken by 
the citizen to secure the installation of safety devices either in his 
own dwelling or in public buildings or in cars and factories. 

For suggestive outlines as to the treatment of Health, Rec- 
reation, Education, Civic Beauty, Communication, Trans- 
portation, Charities and Correction consult Bulletin on the 
Teaching of Community Civics. 

Professor J. F. Smith of Berea College, submitted to the Bu- 
reau of Education the following outline on Country Roads and 
it is here reproduced as a good concrete example for use in rural 
communities. In this study numerous photographs are used. 
Walks are taken over good and bad roads for first-hand study. 
Teacher and pupils actually do a piece of road work. Bulletins 
regarding road building are placed in the hands of the pupils. 
Endeavor is made to have a few yards of model road built near 
the school house. 

A. i. Study and report on conditions of road in the community. 
Draw a map of the community indicating roads. Which 
are dirt roads, rock roads, other kinds? Which are well 
graded, well crowned? Note side ditches; are they ade- 
quate? Note culverts and bridges. Estimate number of 
miles of roads in the community, public and private. 

2. Study road-making material in the community. Note places 

where limestone is found; sandstone, slate, gravel. Are 
these materials accessible? 

3. Find out cost of hauling in the community. Consult wagon- 

ers and learn charges per hundred pounds for freight and 
farm produce. Can fanners afford to market produce at 
present cost of cartage? Find out how much freight is 
hauled into the community annually and compute amount 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. gg 

paid for this. How long will wagon and set of harness last 
on the roads? How long on good roads? Difference in 
cost for 10 years? How much could the people who buy 
supplies afford to spend on road upkeep each year in order 
to cut down freight rates? 
4. Compare cost of hauling here with cost in European countries 
where the best roads exist. What over-tax do the people 
have to pay? Note that this over-tax is in the form of 
higher prices for household necessities and in smaller 
profits for farm produce. 

B. Road building: 

Determine kind of road; the location; grades, how grades affect 
the haul; the drainage — level and steep roads, side ditches, 
culverts, subdrainage, crown; actual construction — tools, 
funds, means employed. 

C. Road maintenance: 

Kind of material to use; regular attention necessary; the tools; 
the king's split-log drag. 

D. What good roads mean to a community: 

The economic problem. How they enhance value of land. 
Means of communication. Better social life. 1 

CONCLUSION 

The last four topics given in the outline — how governmental 
agencies are conducted, general organization of government, 
how governmental agencies are financed, how voluntary agen- 
cies are conducted and financed — are intended to form the basis 
of a review of the organization of government and of cooper- 
ating private associations, which have been only incidentally 
touched upon in considering the various agencies. This will 
place a skeleton or framework within the living structure which 
teacher and pupils have been erecting during the year. The 
treatment of each topic has led to the corresponding department 
of government and its organization for the special function per- 
formed. It merely remains therefore to treat the relation of 
1 Taken from Civic Education Series, No. 4. 



ioo THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

departments and their combination into the units of govern- 
ment — county, city, state, and nation. Organization charts and 
the graphic method of presenting a summary of the essential 
relations between various divisions and officers can be used to 
great advantage. Emphasis may well be given here to the 
state as a whole: its broad significance, its all comprehensiveness, 
its vital importance to community life. 

City charters or ordinances, state constitutions or laws, the 
federal Constitution or acts of Congress — all these should be 
used throughout the course, along with departmental reports, 
maps, charts, models, samples, etc., as collateral material. A 
civics laboratory will come to be regarded in the same light as 
those for physics, chemistry, and biology. 

3. Senior High School. 

On account of the changes already made in civic instruction 
in the elementary grades and in view of further modifications 
now under way it becomes necessary to revise somewhat the 
formal plan of civics course as offered in many secondary 
schools. Such a revision has already been undertaken by 
many principals and instructors and the results are very 
gratifying. This revision has been accomplished mostly in 
schools in which provision is made for a year course in 
government with supplementary readings, field work, reports, 
constant class discussions on current political events and 
the use of graphic methods in the presentation of govern- 
ment facts. The content of the course is sufficiently exten- 
sive to warrant a full year for this instruction. But in many 
schools it is not practicable to devote a full year to the sub- 
ject and the common arrangement is to combine a half year 
of government with a half year of history or economics. An 
experiment which is being tried in some communities is to offer 
a full year of social science (excluding history) combining topics 
from elementary sociology, economics and government into some- 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 101 

what of a unified course. This plan, although it has many ad- 
vocates, has not been sufficiently tried nor well enough developed 
by secondary school instructors to offer any definite guidance 
to teachers. Moreover, a large part of the content does not fall 
within the jurisdiction of this Association. And while the devel- 
opment of methods and courses of study naturally will be the 
result of the work of educators in the secondary schools, never- 
theless it seems to this committee that the American Economic 
Association and the Sociological Society should join with the 
Political Science Association, the National Education Associa- 
tion and the Bureau of Education in the furtherance and direc- 
tion of Social Science instruction in secondary schools. To this 
end a committee should be constituted from the various organi- 
zations and agencies interested in this work to aid in the prepa- 
ration of courses of study and in the unification of instruction 
in the public schools and higher institutions. 

For the schools which now give a full year to the study of gov- 
ernment, for those which give a half year to the subject, and for 
the government portion of a course where the social science 
plan is undertaken the committee offers a few suggestions. 
The topics included can be treated briefly or expanded to suit 
the special needs of each instructor. And above all, the sugges- 
tions are presented in a tentative form for such adoption and use 
as may seem advisable in each individual instance. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE IN CIVICS FOR SENIOR 
HIGH SCHOOL i 

General Suggestions 

The relation to each other of the local, state and federal units of gov- 
ernment is presented on large charts which are before the eyes of 

1 This outline is meant to do nothing more than suggest a method of ap- 
proach, and is not submitted as a syllabus in civics. Its preparation is 
largely the work of Messrs. W. W. Rogers, S. J. Jumnefsky, E. D. Lewis, 
G. D. Luetscher, and H. C. Thomas of the New York City high schools, with 
the cooperation of Messrs. S. B. Howe and D. C. Knowlton of New Jersey. 



102 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

the pupils as much of the time as is possible. The charts are 
thoroughly explained at one of the early meetings of the class, and 
are referred to in discussion with sufficient frequency to plant 
their content permanently in the minds of the pupils as the basis 
of all their thinking. 

The relation to each other of the elementary functions of government, 
— legislation, adjudication and administration, — is also graphically 
presented in a similar way to that used for the geographical units. 

Each student is provided with a convenient handbook of facts and 
early in the course is taught the method of rinding the information 
he wishes in addition to that given in the handbook by consulting 
indices, encyclopedias and the like. 

Consequently it is possible to devote a large part of the time as- 
signed to " recitation " to discussion, the purpose of which is to 
answer the questions suggested to the pupils by their reading; to 
select for them those facts which it is important for them to try to 
remember; and to organize those facts into a system of political 
thought. 

Part I 

State Government 

This topic is placed first because the American State is the basic unit 
of government with us. All other geographical units are divisions 
of the state except the United States which is a federation of com- 
monwealths. The laws determining all of our fundamental rights 
and duties and a large majority of our legal relations are state 
laws; but state government has been woefully neglected, and is at 
present the least efficient of all our public activities. 

I. Legislation is the basic political function and may be divided into 
three kinds: 

(A) Constitution-making. 

(B) Statute-making. 

(C) Ordinance-making. 

(A) Constitutions. 1 

(a) The origin of the idea. 

(i) Constitutions of clubs and societies. 

(2) Charters of corporations. 

(3) Colonial charters. 

1 Each pupil is required to familiarize himself somewhat with the character- 
istics of the constitution of his own state, and the charter of his own city. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 103 

(b) Methods of writing constitutions in America. 

(c) The ideal constitution. 

(d) Outline of the content of several representative state 

constitutions. 

(1) Bill of rights, and its purpose. 

(2) The machinery of government. 

(3) Miscellaneous provisions and their growth. 

(4) Methods of amendment. 

(B) Statute-making, and the meaning of law. 1 

(a) Direct legislation; initiative and referendum; methods 

and results. 

(b) Legislation through representatives. 

(1) Organization of the legislature. 2 

Methods of apportioning and electing members. 
The bicameral vs. the unicameral system. 
Officers of the legislative chambers. 
Committees. 

(2) Methods of procedure. 

Annual vs. biennial sessions. 
Freedom of debate. 
The governor's message. 
The party pledges. 
The initiation of bills. 
Methods of drafting bills. 
Committee hearings and reports. 
Safeguards in the constitution and the rules. 
The governor's veto. 

The test before the courts. Power of the courts 
over legislation under our system. 

^ere the teacher takes time to make clear the idea of law as the basis 
of social order using for illustration the rules of the school, and if they are 
available the rules enacted by the pupil self-government organization or 
the athletic association. It is improbable that all teachers will be able to 
convey to pupils an adequate idea of the relation of law to peace, justice and 
contentment; even those teachers who have the idea clear in their own 
minds may not be able to convey it because of the immaturity of the pupils. 
But without a fair conception of law, a study of government is an aimless 
and a formless confusion. 

2 Compare with the English house of commons and the English cabinet 
when possible. 



104 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

(3) Defects in the system. 

Lack of responsible leadership, Cf. English 
Prime Minister. 

Lack of efficient drafting methods. 

Log-rolling and lobbying. 

Excessive quantities of statutes. 

Special and local legislation. 

Temptation to young and inexperienced mem- 
bers of the legislature. 

(4) Suggested remedies. 

Well guarded possibilities of direct legislation. 
Leadership by the governor and his cabinet. 
A larger amount of popular interest and a 
keener sense of the citizen's responsibilities. 
Proportional representation. 
An efficient system of Bill Drafting. 

(C) Ordinance-making. 

(a) Legislative powers delegated to counties and munici- 

palities in the constitution or in the statutes. 

(b) Methods of legislation in the county. 

(c) Town meetings and their legislative processes. 

(d) Municipal legislation. 1 

Boards of Aldermen, city councils and commissions. 

II. Adjudication is the process of interpreting the laws and deter- 
mining when they have been violated by offenses against in- 
dividuals or against society. 
(A) Organization of the courts. 

(a) The system and basis of graded courts. 

(1) Minor courts. 

(2) County courts. 

(3) State courts. 

(4) Special courts, — probate, claims, juvenile, etc. 
(!>) Officers of the courts. 

(1) Judges. 

Function of the judge fully set forth. 
Methods of selection. 

1 The discussion of legislation for a state applies with equal force to that 
for a municipality as to number of chambers, sessions, methods of organiza- 
tion, and the nature of the output. Each teacher must adjust his discus- 
sion to the locality in which he lives, whether town, county, or city. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 105 

Length of term. 

Salary. 

Removal. 

(2) Juries. 

Kinds of juries, their origin and the function of 

each. 
Methods of selection. 

(3) Prosecutors and public defenders. 

(4) Other officers, clerks, recorders, etc. 

(5) The bar and legal ethics. 

(B) Procedure. 1 

(a) Criminal procedure. 

(b) Civil procedure. 

(C) Defects in our system. 

(a) Prolonged litigation. 

(b) Expensive litigation. 

(c) Complicated and technical processes. 

(D) Proposed remedies. 

(a) A higher type of judge. 

(1) By appointment instead of election. 

(2) By a public opinion demanding a better type of 

judge. 

(b) Simplification of our rules of practice. 

(c) A more intelligent system of legislation which may pro- 

duce laws that are intelligible. 

III. The Execution of the Law and the administration of Public 
Affairs. 
(A) The machinery of administration. 2 
(a) For the State as a whole. 

1 Pupils visit a court room when possible. If this is not possible, the 
teacher should make plain to them in outline under a and b, such elements 
as the complaint, the answer, the charge to the jury, and the like. A well 
conducted mock trial is found to be useful for this. Attention will be cen- 
tred on these steps as parts of an effort to secure justice; not as part of a 
formidable system to be learned like the irregular verbs or the location of 
Madagascar. 

2 As far as is practicable, the information under A is graphically presented 
in charts. No more time is given in class to recitation about machinery 
than is necessary to stimulate the pupil to remember the important facts. 



106 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

(i) The governor. 

Method of nomination and election. 1 
Party machinery. 
Party activity. 
Ballots and ballot laws. 
Primary system. 

(2) Other state officials, and their selection. 

The short ballot system. 

(3) The permanent civil service. 

The difference between policy determining 

officials and civil servants. 
Some idea of the history of the merit system. 
The difficulties placed in the way of the system 

by the defects of human nature. 

(4) Boards, commissions, and general confusion. 

(b) For the County. 

The officers and their selection. 

(c) For the Town. 

The officers and their selection. 

Generally the interest of the work conducted as this outline indicates is 
sufficient to accomplish this purpose. It is particularly important for the 
success of the work that the teacher feel obliged to teach only the facts 
that he knows, and not try to prepare his lessons from day to day. He should 
be content to teach the government of the local unit and State in which his 
school is situated; and if he does not know the organization of these he 
should make an earnest effort during some summer vacation to learn them 
thoroughly. He should not hesitate to say frankly that he does not know 
all about the complicated mechanism of government, but is willing to help 
the pupils to learn as much of it as they wish to learn. He will of course 
avail himself of the help to be gotten from the published reports of public 
officials of his locality and State. Many helpful pictures may be obtained 
and in some states lantern slides are available for an occasional illustrated 
lecture. 

1 Here is presented the organization of political parties in the State under 
consideration, with the relation of this organization to the national parties. 
The methods of nominating and electing public servants may here be made 
clear once for all. Some teachers find it preferable to do this above (B, b, 1) 
when the selection of representatives for the legislature is under discussion. 
It is particularly desirable that a teacher teach government in the way he 
sees it, leaving room in his discussion for differences of opinion and point of 
view and avoiding emphasis on matters of opinion. He cannot make it 
vital unless he teaches his way what he sees. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 107 

(d) For the City. 

The officers and their selection. 

(1) Under the old system. 

(2) The commission plan of city government. 

(3) The commission manager plan. 

(B) Problems of administration. 1 

(a) The preservation of peace and order, the police and the 

militia. 

(b) The protection of property and persons. 

(c) The preservation of health. 2 

1 Each of the main functions, the efficient performance of which consti- 
tutes the problem of the ministrant side of government, is studied by the class 
as fully as the time available permits; and time is saved from the discussion 
of machinery and organization for much fuller discussion of these functions 
than has heretofore been the custom. Not a few teachers find it advisable 
to present at this point in one meeting of the class an outline of the organiza- 
tion of the federal administration, and then in the discussion of each of the 
functions taken up bring into the discussion the part played by the Federal 
government as well as that by the State and the local unit in which the school 
is situated. The class takes up each function with the notion clearly in 
mind that here is a great social problem (the preservation of health, the 
education of citizens, the care of dependent and delinquent classes) and pro- 
ceeds to study the present available methods for its solution, incidentally 
learning something of the difficulties in the way of the organization of public 
activities, the selection of officials, and the securing of public support for 
efficient servants who are not also efficient politicians. 

2 It is of course impossible for all of any class to study all of the functions 
of government thoroughly, and it is unnecessary that this be done. The 
object sought is not information about these functions, but a conception of 
the way government works, — a vital grasp of the thing from an observation 
of its detail. One small group of students in a class takes up the organiza- 
tion for the care of health, and reports on this to the class. They study 
what is done by the local board of health, the powers of the board, its rela- 
tion to the state board, the relation of both to Federal organs such as the 
Public Health Service of the Treasury Department. They know something 
of pure food activities of the Department of Agriculture and of the State; 
the quarantine laws; and the like. They thus grasp as fully as children of 
their age can, the complicated system of health administration and form 
some idea of the pernicious influence of that type of politician who thinks 
any faithful henchman is suitable for a job in the health department. It is 
advisable to specialize a part of this work when possible by the discussion 
of some epidemic or nuisance with which the pupils are acquainted in their 
home lives. 



108 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

(d) Education. 1 

(e) Conservation and development of public resources, in- 

cluding agriculture. 

(f) Public works, roads and buildings. 

(g) Art and aesthetic development. 

(h) City planning and the development of the city and 

country for future generations, 
(i) Charities and correction. 

(C) Defects in our system. 

(a) Excessive respect for individual rights. . 

(b) The spoils system still surviving in the civil service. 

(c) The long ballot which makes intelligent election 

impossible. 

(d) Popular indifference to efficiency in public and pri- 

vate affairs. 

(e) Public ignorance of the nature of the work of govern- 

ment and therefore inability to judge the nature of 
the public service required. 

(f) Superstitious reverence for the separation of powers. 

1 Another group of the same class may study and report on the educa- 
tional function. There is no more illuminating subject for our general pur- 
pose. The cost of the schools as represented in the city, the State and the 
Federal budgets; the powers of the local school boards; of the State superin- 
tendent of education; the service rendered by the Federal Bureau, with its 
splendid system of collecting and distributing information. The overlap- 
ping of functions and the resulting waste of energy when various units 
proceed to the collecting of information on the same subjects, here appear. 
Under the growing activities of the schools, such as free lunches, playground 
equipment, etc., there is introduced an elementary discussion of the problems 
of socialism and individualism. The public educational institutions are con- 
trasted with the private ones. Lunch rooms run by the school are con- 
trasted with lunch rooms to which the pupils might go in the vicinity which 
are run by private persons. Paternalism is explained to some extent in the 
discussion of the compulsory education law, and the requirements that the 
health of the pupils be cared for. Here the group on this subject overlap 
with the group studying health, and some interesting discussion generally 
results. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 109 

Part II 

Federal Government 
A union of commonwealths for purposes which require common action. 

I. Federal Legislation. 

(A) The Federal Constitution. 

(a) Origin of our Federal system. 

(1) Articles of Confederation and earlier efforts at 

union. 

(2) The critical period. 

(3) Economic and political causes of the Conven- 

tion of 1787. 

(b) Content of the Constitution. 1 

(c) Evolution of the Constitution under judicial deci- 

sions. 

(d) Evolution of the Constitution under public opinion. 

(e) Probable future development of the Constitution. 

(B) Federal Statutes. 

(a) Review organization of the legislative process as out- 

lined under State government. 

(b) Powers of Congress under the Constitution. 

(c) Rapid growth of these powers through custom and 

judicial decision. 

(d) The present tendency of development. 

(e) The basis of argument for local self-government as 

opposed to centralization in legislation. 

II. Federal Adjudication. 

(A) Origin and growth of the Federal courts. 

(a) Jay's attitude toward their functions. 

(b) Marshall and his work. 

(c) Popular confidence in the Federal courts. 

(B) Review the organization and procedure of the judiciary as 

outlined under state government. 

1 The outline of the Constitution is learned. The Constitution itself is 
not memorized but carefully studied. Studying many books about a Con- 
stitution which is not read is a common practice, but one that cannot be 
defended. 



no THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

(C) Relation of the Federal to the State courts as regards au- 

thority and fields of activity. 

Illustrate with one or two examples of conflict. 

(D) Compare the Federal judges with those of the States as 

regards reputation and efficiency; and explain the ad- 
vantages held by the Federal judges. 

III. Federal Administration. 

(A) Review the discussion of the State administration, sub- 
stituting the President for the Governor. 

(B) Currency and Banking. 

(a) A medium of exchange. 

(b) A means of securing an elastic currency. 

(c) Government supervision. 

(d) The National Bank Act. 

(e) The Federal Reserve. 

(C) The Army and Navy. 

(D) The Postal Service. 

(E) Promotion of Commerce and Industry. 

(F) Government of Dependencies. 

(a) Review the administration of territories by our gov- 

ernment since the Ordinance of 1787. 

(b) The American colonial policy is altruistic, not one 

of exploitation. 

(c) Discuss the holding of dependencies in the light of 

the principles of the Declaration of Independence. 

(G) International Affairs. 

(a) The President and the Secretary of State. 

(b) The Diplomatic system. 

(1) Its purpose. 

(2) Its origin and growth. 

(3) Its relation to spoils and patronage. 

(4) Methods of improving the diplomatic personnel. 

(c) The consular system. 

(1) Its purpose. 

(2) Its personnel and present weakness. 

(3) The need of the merit system in this service. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC, in 

(d) Our foreign policy. 

(i) Entangling alliances. 

(2) The Monroe Doctrine. 

(3) Pan- Americanism. 

(4) The open-door in the East. 

(5) Our best ideals of treating weaker nations. 

(6) International arbitration. 

(7) The idea of a federation of the world for in- 

ternational law, a court to interpret it, and 
sufficient force to have the court's awards re- 
spected. 

II. BIBLIOGRAPHIES^ 
A. Some References on Methods of Teaching. 2 

Abelow, Samuel P. Civics, Grades 4A to 6B, inclusive. New York 

Teachers' Monograph, 12: 48-67, 70-76, 78-84, 87-96, October, 

1910. 
Allen, William H. Teaching Civics by giving Pupils Civic Work to do. 

The American City, Feb., 1916. 
Allix, E. H. Nezard, and A. Meunier. Instruction Civique. Pp. 72. 

Paris, 1 9 10. 
American Political Science Association. Report of Committee on 

Instruction in American Government in Secondary Schools. Pp. 

219-57. Proceedings, 1908. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1909. 
. Report on Instruction in Political Science in Colleges and Uni- 
versities. Pp. 249-270. Proceedings, 19 13. 
. Report of Committee of Seven on Instruction in Colleges and 

Universities. Pp. 353-374. Political Science Review, Vol. IX, 

No. 2, 1915. 
American Historical Association. Report of the Committee of Eight 

on the Study of History in the Elementary Schools. Pp. xvii, 141 . 

Scribners, 191 1. 

1 The preparation of the bibliographical lists was simplified by the as- 
sistance of Misses Buxbaum and Soule and the New York City libraries and 
by the cooperation of the Congressional Library. 

2 Too large a proportion of the writings on civics teaching is still for 
purposes of inspiration rather than for information. If the teacher can be 
given some more helpful, definite information, he is much more likely to go 
ahead with useful work than if energy is wasted in pious urgings to go ahead 
no one knows whither. 



H2 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



. Report of the Committee of Five on the Study of History in 

the Secondary Schools. Pp. 69. Macmillan, 191 1. 

. Report of the Committee of Seven on the Study of History in 

Schools. Pp. 266. Macmillan, 1909. 

Ames, Edgar W. A Method of Teaching Municipal Government, 
History Teachers' Magazine. Pp. 84-86, April, 191 2. 

Arms, S. D. Teaching of Civics. Emphasis on What Phases? Pp. 
263-6. New York State Teachers' Association Proceedings, 
1908. 

Aronovici, Carol. The Social Survey. Pp. 255. The Harper Press, 
1916. 

Bajot, Louis M. Quel est le genre d'Education le plus propre a former 
au Administrateur. Pp. 55. Paris: Clerc, 1910. 

Baker, J. H. Educational Aims and Civic Needs. Pp. 183. Long- 
mans, Green and Company, 1913. 

Baldwin, Simeon E. The Relations of Education to Citizenship. 
Pp. 178. Yale University Press, 191 2. 

Barnard, J. L. The Teaching of Civics in Elementary Schools. Pp. 
40-48. Proceedings of the Association of History Teachers of 
the Middle States and Maryland, 1913. 

. The Teaching of Civics in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 

Pp. 84-90. Proceedings of the National Educational Associa- 
tion, 1913. 

and Others. The Teaching of Community Civics. United 

States Bureau of Education, Bulletin Number 23, 191 5. 

. Training in the Schools for Civic Efficiency, Annals of the 

American Academy of Political and Social Science, Septem- 
ber, 1916. 

Beach, W. G. The College and Citizenship. Proceedings of the 
Washington Educational Association. Pp. 55-57. School Jour- 
nal Publishing Co., 1908. 

Beard, C. A. Training for Citizenship. Pp. 53-58. Proceedings of 
the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and 
Maryland, 1913. 

. Politics. Pp. 35. Columbia University Press, 191 2. 

An essay introductory to the study of politics. 

. The Study and Teaching of Politics. Pp. 268-274. Columbia 

University Press, June, 191 2, v. 12. 

Boitel, J., and R. Foiguet. Notions elemcntaire destruction civique 
de droit usuel et d'economie politique. Pp. 307. Paris: C. Dela- 
grave, 1910. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 113 

Bourgueil, E. Instruction civique. Pp. 223. Paris: F. Northam, 

1910. 
Bourne, H. E. The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary 

and Secondary Schools. Pp. 385. Longmans, Green, 1902. 
Brereton, Cloudesley. The Teaching of Civics for the Future Citizen. 

Journal of Education (London) 46: 553-55, August, 1914. 
Bryce, James. The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. Pp. 138. Yale 

University Press, 19 10. 
Buck, Winifred. Boys' Self- Government Clubs. Pp. 218. N. Y., 

1903. 
Burchard, E. L. Laboratory Method in Civics, Educational Bi- 

Monthly, October, 191 5. 
Cabot, Ella Lyman, Editor. A Course in Citizenship. Houghton, 

Mifflin and Company, 19 14. An outline month by month for 

the first to the eighth grade, inclusive. 
Commons, J. R. The Junior Republic. American Journal of Soci- 
ology, 3: pp. 281-96; 433-48, 1897, 1898. 
Compayre, G. Lectures on Pedagogy. Pp. 408-416. Civic Instruc- 
tion. 
Connelly, C. B. Citizenship in Industrial Education, Proceedings, 

National Education Association. 
Cotton, F. A. Linking the School with the Community. Wisconsin 

Journal of Education, 46: pp. 37-39, 1914. 
Dana, J. C. The Study of a City in the Schools of that City (Newark, 

N. J.). Pp. 329-335. Pedagogical Seminary, September, 191 1, 

Volume 18. 
Davis, Michael M. A Next Step toward Better Civics Teaching. Pp. 

380-389. Proceedings, National Municipal League, 1909. 
Denison, Elsa. Civic Cooperation with Public Schools. American 

City, September 191 1. 
Dewey, John and Evelyn. The Schools of Tomorrow. Pp.316. E. P. 

Dutton & Co., 1915. 
Dill, C. C. What High Schools Are Doing to Develop Right Ideals 

of Citizenship. Pp. 53-55. Proceedings, Washington Educa- 
tional Association, 1908. 
Dunn, A. W. Civic Education in Elementary Schools. United States 

Bureau of Education, Number 17, 191 5. 
. The Trend of Civic Education. Annual Report, Commissioner 

of Education, 1914. 
Durbin, Fannie. An Eighth Grade Civic League. Ohio Educational 

Monthly, 58: 59-63, 1909. 



H4 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Ellwood, C. A. The Place of the Social Sciences in Education. Pp. 

544-549. School Review, September, 1907, Volume 15. 
Folwell, W. W. The Civic Education University Addresses. Pp. 

185-224. H. W. Wilson, 1909. 
French, C. W. Social Education, 3 : 136-147. Educational Bimonthly, 

1908. 
Gathany, J. Madison. Practical Aims and Methods in Teaching 

of Civics. History Teachers' Magazine, 4: 20-22, January, 1913. 
Giesecke, A. A. Questions in Municipal Civics. Pp. 114. Bardeen, 

1911. 
Cornell Study Bulletins for Teachers, edited by C. de Garmo. 
Gill, Wilson L. The Boys and Girls Republic. Pp. 99. American 

Patriotic League, 19 13. 

. A New Citizenship. Pp. 268. American Patriotic League, 1913. 

Gillette, John M. Outline of Social Study for Elementary Schools. 

American Journal of Sociology, January 7, 1914, Volume 19: 

491-509. 
Goodwin, F. P. Why Teach Community Civics. Ohio Educational 

Monthly, August, 1910, 59: 415-20. 
Greenwood, James M. The Social Function of the School and Getting 

At It. Missouri School Journal, 31: 99-104; March, 1914. 
Hadley, Arthur Twining. The Education of the American Citizen. 

Pp. 135-149. Scribners, 1902. 
Haines, Charles Grove. Suggestions for the Teaching of Civics in the 

High Schools of Texas. Bulletin, No. 5, University of Texas, 

1916. 
Hall, G. S. Civic Education. Educational Problems, Volume 2. Pp. 

667-82. Appleton, 191 1. 
Hamilton, W. B. Outline for History and Civics. Two Rivers, Wis- 
consin. 
Hill, Mabel. The Teaching of Civics. Pp. 143. Houghton, Mifflin, 

1914. 
Hinman, George W. The New Duty of American Colleges. United 

States 63d Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document 236, 1193. 
Hodges, L. Winston-Salem Plan of Training Boys for Citizenship. 

Pp, 617-618. American City, 1913, Volume 8. 
Hornell, Orren Chalmer. Guide to the Study of the Town, City, 

County, State and Nation. Published by Educational Depart- 
ment, State of Maine, 191 5. 
Horton, D. W. Standards for Community Civics. History Teachers' 

Magazine. Vol. XII. No. 2 (Feb., 1916). 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 115 

Hughes, E. H. The Teaching of Citizenship. Pp. 240. Wilde, 1909. 
Hughes, R. E. The Making of Citizens. Pp. viii, 405. Scribners, 

1912. 
Hunsaker, A. F, Civics in the Secondary Schools. Education, 33: 

228-37. December, 191 2. 
James, E. J. Training for Citizenship. Pp. 132-155. Association 

of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and 

Maryland, 1898. 
Jenks, J. W. Citizenship and the Schools. Pp. 264. Henry Holt, 

1906. 
Johnston, Charles. School Republic. Harper's Weekly, 55:13, Sep- 
tember 23, 1911. 
Kellogg, Kate S. An Experiment in Practical Civics. Pp. 174-184. 

Educational Bi-monthly, December, 1910, Volume 5. 
An effort to introduce inductive civics into the Chicago ^ 
elementary schools. 
Kerschensteiner, G. M. Der Begriff Staatsburgerliche Erziehung. 

Pp. 121. Leipzig: Teubner, 19 13. 
. Education for Citizenship , . . Translated by A. J. Pressland 

from the Fourth Edition. Pp. xx, 133. Rand, McNally, 

1911. 
Kinsman, D. O. The Teaching of Civics. American Schoolmaster, 

6: 457-62. December, 191 2. 
Lakeman, F. W. Civics. Pp. 1 13-128. Proceedings, New Hamp- 
shire Teachers Association, 1907. 
Lasmmel, R. Die Reformation der nationalen Erziehung. Pp. 10. 

Zurich: 19 10. 
Leupolt, E. Die Erziehung zum deutschen Staatsbiirger in der Volks- 

schule Vortrag. Pp. 26. 1909. 
Lewis, W. D. Democracy's High School. Houghton, 1914. 
Loeb, Isidore. Aims and Methods of Teaching Civics in Elementary 

and Secondary Schools. Southern Educational Review, 2: 

736-45. February, 1906. 
Luqueer, F. L. A Tentative Program for the Teaching of Municipal 

Government and of Civics in the Elementary School. Pp. 249- 

77. Proceedings, National Municipal League, 1904. 
MacVeagh, F. Education and the Voter. University of Chicago 

Magazine, 4: 300-8; July, 191 2. 
McSkimmon, Mary. The Training of Children in Civic Ideals. Pp. 

139-141, 146. Journal of Education, July 23, 1908, Volume 

68. 



n6 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Mark, H. Thiselton. The Teaching of Civics in American Schools. 
In Moral Education in American Schools. Pp. 128-42. London: 
Wyman and Sons, 1902. 

Mattingly, I. R. Teaching Civics in Country Schools. West Vir- 
ginia School Journal, 39: 28-31. October, 1910. 

Mead, L. T. Patriotism and Peace. How to Teach Them in the 
Schools. Pp. 32. Boston: International School of Peace, 
1910. 

Moody, W. D. City Planning and the Public Schools, 6: 720-23. 
American City, May, 191 2. 

Monroe, Paul. Principles of Secondary Education. Chapters XIV 
and XX, Macmillan, 19 14. 

Morey, W. C. American Education and American Citizenship. Pp. 
20. 1910. 

Munro, W. B. The Present Status of Instruction in Municipal 
Government in the Universities and Colleges of the United 
States. Pp. 248-66. Proceedings, National Municipal League. 
1908. 

National Municipal Leauge Proceedings for the Years 1 901-1909 
contain discussions of the Teaching of Municipal Govern- 
ment. 

Orr, William. The High School and the Civic Spirit, 18: 88-99. 
Journal of Pedagogy, December, 1905. 

Outline for the Study of American Civil Government in Secondary 
Schools prepared by New England History Teachers' Associa- 
tion. Macmillan, 1910. 

Penstone, M. M. Town Study, Suggestions for a Course of Lessons 
Preliminary to the Study of Civics. Illustrated. Pp. 454. 
London: National Society Depository, 1910. 

Perrin, H. E. Patriotism in the Public Schools, 20: 404-14. Educa- 
tion, March, 1900. 

Porritt, A. G. Feminization of our Schools and its Political Conse- 
quences, 41: 441-48. Educational Review, May, 191 1. 

Posada, Adolfe. Derecho Politico Comparado, Capitulos de In- 
struccion. Pp. 251. Madrid: Suarez, 1906. 

Ruhlman, u. Kohler. Staatsblirgerliche Erziehung. Pp. 36. Cohn, 
Jung National Liberator Reichswerband, 1910. 

Schaper, W. A. What Do Students Know about American Govern- 
ment before Taking College Courses in Political Science? Journal 
of Pedagogy, June, 1906, Volume 18: 265-288. 

School City Methods. Outlook, 91: 777-778, April 3, 1907. World's 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 117 

Work, 26: 190-95, June, 1913. Outlook, 90: 939-48, Decem- 
ber 26, 1908. See also Outlook, 104: 847-48, August 16, 

1913. 

Self-Government in Schools as a Training for Citizenship. See Wel- 
ling, R. W. G. School City. 

Sheldon, W. L. Citizenship and the Duties of a Citizen. Pp. 466. 
Welch, 1904. 

Shufro, James J. Term Plan in Civics, a Fourth Grade Syllabus 
School Work, 5: 409-25, January, 1907; and 9: 53-70, October, 
1910. 

Simons, R. S. The Juvenile Street Cleaning League of New York. 
American City, 3: 163-66, 239-43, October and November, 
1910. 

Skinner, E. Mabel. Civics: The Art of Citizenship. National Mu- 
nicipal Review, April, 191 6. 

Snedden, David. What is Real Training for Citizenship. Washing- 
ton Education Association, Northwest Journal of Education, 
191 1. Pp. 39-45. 

Social Studies, The Reorganization of. National Education Associa- 
tion Committee on Social Studies in the Secondary Schools. 
Proceedings, 1913, Volume 4: 491-96; also Bulletin 41, 1913, 
of Bureau of Education of the United States. 

Stowe, Lyman Beecher. School Republics. Outlook, 90: 939- 
48. 

Sullivan, James. Training for Citizenship. Pp. 48-52. Proceedings, 
History Teachers Association of the Middle States and Maryland, 

1913. 
. Civics. Pp. 24-28. In Cyclopedia of Education by Paul 

Munroe, Volume 2. Macmillan, 191 1. 
Syllabus of Civics for High Schools. Regents of the State of New 

York, 1910. 
Syllabus of Civics for Elementary Schools. Board of Education, 

Philadelphia, 19 16. 
Todd, E. S. Economic Basis for Civics Teaching. Education, 32: 

436-44, 478-84; March-April, 191 2. 
Training for Public Service. Publications of the New York Bureau 

of Municipal Research. 
Trotter, W. F. The Citizen and His Duties. Pp. 115. 1907. 
United States Bureau of Education. 

Civic Education Series: 

Community Civics, What Is It? 



Ii8 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

What Training for Citizenship Means. 

Civic Education in Schools. 

Civic Education in Secondary Schools. 

Also Bulletins: 

No. 12, 19 13. Promotion of Peace. 

No. 41, 1913. Social Studies in Secondary Schools. 

No. 47, 1 9 13. Civics Material in Government Publications. 

No. 17, 191 5. Civic Education in Elementary Schools. 

No. 23, 1915. The Teaching of Community Civics. 
These publications may be had from the Bureau of Education 
at Washington, or from the Superintendent of Public Documents by 
the payment of 5 or 10 cents for each. 
Wauer, A. Was Soil der Deutsche Staatsbiirger Wissen? Pp. 17. 

Meissen, 1910. 
Welling, R. W. G. Pupil Self-Government as a Training for Citizen- 
ship. National Education Association Proceedings, 191 1, 105-9. 

1903, 98-102. 
White, A. D. The Provision for Higher Instruction Bearing Directly 

upon Public Affaris. House Executive Document 42, Part 2, 

46th Congress, 3d Session. 
. Education in Political Science. Pp. 51. Baltimore: Murphy, 

1879. 
. European Schools of History and Politics. Johns Hopkins 

University Studies, Series 5, Volume 12. 
Wilcox, D. F. The American City, Chapter IV. Civic Education. 

Pp. 91-120. Macmillan, 1904. 
Wilson, Woodrow. The Study of Politics. An Old Master and other 

Essays. Pp. 31-57. Scribners, 1893. 
Wolfe, A. B. Shall We Have an Introductory Course in Social Sci- 
ences? Journal of Political Economy, 22: 253-67. March, 

1914. 
Wolf, H. Angeordnete Geschichte einer Erziehung Zum Politische 

Denken und Wollen. Pp. 8-22. Pedagische Archive, 191 1. 
Wylie, R. C. Our Training Schools for Citizenship. Bibliotheca 

Sacra, 61: 462-82. July, 1904. 
Zimmcrmann, P. Staatsbiirgerliche Erziehung. Pp. 67. Verlag der 

Mainbriick, 1909. 

A few representative Elementary School Texts. 

Ashley, R. L. Government and the Citizen. Pp. 252. Mac- 
millan, 1904. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 119 

Dunn, A. W. The Community and the Citizen. Pp. 312. 
Heath, 1914. 

Forman, S. E. Essentials in Civil Government. Pp. 251. Ameri- 
can, 1909. 

Guitteau, W. B. Preparing for Citizenship. Pp. 238. Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1913. 

Hill, Mabel. Lessons for Junior Citizens. Pp. 234. Ginn, 
1906. 

Jewett, F. G. Town and City. Pp. 277. Ginn, 1906. 

Lapp, J. A. Our America. The Elements of Civics. Bobbs- 
Merrill. 1916. 

McCarthy, Swan and McMullin. Elementary Civics. Pp. 232. 
Thompson, Brown, 1916. 

Nida, W. L. City, State and Nation. Pp. 327. Macmillan, 1915. 

A few representative Secondary School Texts. 1 

Ashley, R. L. American Government. Pp. 356. Macmillan, 1913. 
Beard, C. A. American Citizenship. Pp. 326. Macmillan, 19 15. 
Forman, S. E. The American Republic. Pp.359. Century, 191 1. 
Garner, J. W. Government in the United States. Pp. 416. 

American, 1913. 
Guitteau, W. B. Government and Politics in the United States. 

Pp. 473. Houghton, 191 1. 
James and Sanford. Government in State and Nation. Scribners, 

1914. 
Moses, Bernard. The Government of the United States. Pp. 

424. Appleton, 1 9 10. 
Smith, J. W. Training for Citizenship. Pp. 345. Longmans, 

1907. 

B. Bibliographical Suggestions for Teachers 

1. General 

Bibliography of the Social Sciences, Edited by Hermann Beck; 

Berlin. One volume each year since 1895, the more recent ones 

with an index. 
Readers Guide to Economics, Sociology and Political Science, Bowker, 

R. R., and George lies. Putnam, 1891, still of some value. 

1 The highly developed city high schools frequently use such books as 
Beard's American Government and Politics, Macmillan, and Bryce's 
American Commonwealth, abridged edition, Macmillan. 



120 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Bibliography of Education, United States Bureau of Education, 

under the direction of J. A. Wyer and others. 
Bibliography of Municipal Government, W. B. Munro, Harvard press, 

1915. 

Handbook of History, Diplomacy and Government, A. B. Hart, 
Cambridge, 1903. 

Most articles in the better encyclopedias provide bibliographical in- 
formation. 

Cyclopedia of American Government, 3 vols., Appleton, 1914. 

Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy and Political 
History, 3 vols. J. J. Lalor, C. E. Merrill, 1899. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, nth Edition, is a mine of information. 

The Congressional Library service is generously and ably given to all 
citizens who ask it. 

The United States Government issues a monthly list of publications 
from the government press, many of which are valuable to the 
teacher of government, and most of which may be had for a 
nominal price. 

The Municipal Reference Library Notes, New York City, is a weekly 
list of publications bearing on municipal government. 

Manuals and handbooks of American and other legislative bodies are 
of considerable interest to pupils if brought to their attention and 
explained. They generally contain legislative rules and parlia- 
mentary practice. 

The following handbooks give most of the constantly changing facts 
of political machinery: 

Statesman's Yearbook, Macmillan. 

National Yearbook, Hammond. 

Whitaker's Almanack, London; American edition, Doubleday. 

American Yearbook, Appleton. 

South American Yearbook, Cassier, London. 

Other yearbooks for Russia, Japan, South Africa, China, etc. 

HazelPs Annals, London. 

The World Almanac, the New York World Press, a surprisingly full 
collection of all sorts of political information. 

The Brooklyn Eagle Almanac, particularly good for New York. 

2. Periodicals 

Proceedings of American Political Science Association, discontinued 

since 1914. Vols. I-XI. 
Proceedings of the National Municipal League. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 121 

American Political Science Review, Vols. I-X. 

National Municipal Review, Vols I-V. 

Political Science Quarterly, Vols. I-XXX. 

Proceedings of the New York Academy of Political Science, Vols. 
I-VL 

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 
Vols I-LXII. 
The above series and the current issues of these publications contain 

articles, book reviews, and news and notes of inestimable value for 

reference use. 

Among the more popular magazines may be mentioned as particularly 
useful to the teacher of government, The Survey, The Indepen- 
dent, The Forum, Literary Digest, The Nation, The New Re- 
public, New York Times Monthly Review of Events, North 
American Review, The Outlook, The Review of Reviews, The 
American City. 

In English the best indices to periodicals are Poole's to 1906, and 
since 1900 the Readers Guide to Periodical Literature. 

3. Books for Libraries and for Reference. Titles of Special Value for 
Reference are Indicated by a Star 

Adams, H. C. Public Finance, Henry Holt, 1905. 

Agger, E. E. The Budget in the American Common- 

wealths, Columbia University Stud- 
ies, 1907. 

Ames, H. V. State Documents on Federal Rela- 

tions, Longmans, 1906. 

Anderson, F. M. The Constitution and Other Select 

Documents Illustrative of the His- 
tory of France, 1 789-1907. Min- 
neapolis, 1908. 

Angell, Norman The Great Illusion, Putnams, 191 1. 

Ashley, Percy Local and Central Government, John 

Murray, 1906. 

Ashley, Roscoe L. American Federal State, Macmillan, 

1911. 

Bagehot, W. English Constitution, Appleton, 1909. 

Baldwin, S. E. Modern Political Institutions, Little, 

Brown, 1898. 

The American Judiciary, Century, 

1905. 



122 



THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



Barnett 



Bastable, C. F. 
*Beard, C. A. 



Beard, M. R. 

Bluntschli, J. K. 

Bodley, J. S. C. 
Borgeaud, C. 

Bourinot, J. C. 
Brewer, D. J. 
Brooks, R. C. 
*Bruere, Henry 
*Bryce, James 



Bullock, Charles J. 
Burgess, John W. 



The Operation of the Initiative, Ref- 
erendum and Recall in Oregon, 
Macmillan, 1915. 

Public Finance, Macmillan, 1903. 

American Government and Politics, 
Macmillan, 19 10. 

Readings in American Government, 
Macmillan, 19 14. 

The Supreme Court and The Con- 
stitution, Macmillan, 191 2. 

American City Government, Century, 
1912. 

Economic Interpretation of the Con- 
stitution, Macmillan, 1913. 

Economic Origins of JefFersonian De- 
mocracy, Macmillan, 191 5. 

Woman's Work in Municipalities, 
Apple ton, 191 5. 

Theory of the Modern State, Clarendon 
Press, 1895. 

France, 2 v., Macmillan, 1900. 

Adoption and Amendment of Consti- 
tutions in Europe and America, 

1895. 
How Canada Is Governed, Copp, 

Clark, 1909. 
United States Supreme Court, Scrib- 

ners, 1903. 
Corruption in American Politics and 

Life, Dodd, Mead, 1910. 
The New City Government, Appleton, 

1913. 
The American Commonwealth, 2 v., 

Macmillan, 1914. 
Abridged Edition, 19 10. 
Studies in History and Jurisprudence, 

2 v., Oxford, 1901. 
Selected Readings in Public Finance, 

Ginn, 1906. 
Political Science and Comparative 

Constitutional Law, Ginn, 1890. 






SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 123 



Eutler, Nicholas M. 
Carson, H. L. 
*Childs, R, S. 
*Geveland, Frederick A. 



Cleveland, Grover 
*Commons, J. R. 
Cooley, T. M. 
Coolidge, A. C. 
Corwin, E. S. 
*Cotton, J. P. 
*Croly, H. D. 
*Dallinger, F. W. 
*Dealey, J. Q. 
Deming, Horace E. 
*Dewey, D. R. 
*Dicey, A. V. 
*Dodd, Walter Fairleigh 



The Reconciliation of Government 
with Liberty, Scribners, 191 5. 

Why Should We Change Our Form 
of Government? Scribners, 191 2. 

The Supreme Court of the United 
States, Ziegler, 1892. 

Short Ballot Principles, Houghton, 
Mifflin, 1911. 

Organized Democracy. An Intro- 
duction to the Study of American 
Politics, Longmans, 19 13. 

Municipal Administration and Ac- 
counting, Longmans, 1909. 

Presidential Problems, Century, 1904. 

Proportional Representation, Crowell, 

1907. 
Principles of Constitutional Law, Little, 

Brown, 1898. 
The United States as a World Power, 

Macmillan, 1908. 
The Doctrine of Judicial Review, 

Princeton, 1914. 
The Constitutional Decisions of John 

Marshall, Putnams, 1905. 
Promise of American Life, Mac- 
millan, 1909. 
Nominations for Elective Office in 

the United States, Longmans, 1897. 
Growth of American State Constitu- 
tions, Ginn, 191 5. 
The Government of American Cities, 

Putnams, 1909. 
Financial History of the United States, 

Longmans, 1907. 
Introduction to the Study of the Law 

of the Constitution, Macmillan, 1915. 
Modern Constitutions, University of 

Chicago Press, 1909. 
The Revision and Amendment of State 

Constitutions, Hopkins Press, 1910. 



124 



THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



Dunning, W. A. 

Elliott, Jonathan 

Evans, L. B. 
*Fairlie, J. A. 



*Farrand, Max 
Federalist, The 



*Finley and Sanderson 
*Fish, C. R. 



Fishback, W. P. 

Follett, M. P. 
Foltz, E. B. K. 
*Ford, Henry J. 



*Foster, John W. 
Fuller, H. B. 
Fullerton, W. M. 



Political Theories, Ancient and Mediae- 
val, and From Luther to Montes- 
quieu, 2 v., Macmillan, 1905. 

Debates in the Several State Conven- 
tions on Adoption of the Federal 
Constitution, Lippincott, 19 10. 

Leading Cases in American Consti- 
tutional Law, Callaghan, 191 6. 

Essays on Municipal Administration, 
Macmillan, 1908. 

Local Government in Counties, Towns 
and Villages, Century, 1906. 

Municipal Administration, Macmillan, 
1906. 

The Records of the Federal Constitu- 
tion, Yale University Press, 191 1. 

P. L. Ford, Editor, Holt, 1898. 

H. B. Dawson, Editor, Scribners, 

1897. 

H. C. Lodge, Editor, Putnam, 1888. 

The American Executive and Execu- 
tive Methods, Century, 1908. 

The Civil Service and the Patronage, 
Harvard Historical Studies, 1905. 

American Diplomacy, Holt, 191 5. 

A Manual of Elementary Law, Re- 
vised by A. B. Hall, Bobbs-Merrill 
Co., 1915. 

The Speaker of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, Longmans, Green, 1909. 

The Federal Civil Service as a Career, 
Putnam, 1909. 

The Rise and Growth of American 
Politics, Macmillan, 1900. 

The Cost of Our National Government, 
Columbia University Press, 1910. 

The Practice of Diplomacy, Hough- 
ton, Mifflin, 1906. 

The Speaker of the House, Little, 
Brown, 1909. 

Problems of Power, Scribners, 191 5. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 125 



*Garner, J. W. 

George, H. 

*Gettell, Raymond G. 



Giddings, F. H. 



Gillette, J. M. 
*Goodnow, F. J. 



Gray, John Chipman 
*Grice, J. W. 
Griffith, E. C. 
Haines, C. G. 
HaU, J. P. 



Introduction to Political Science, 

American, 19 10. 
Progress and Poverty, Doubleday, 

Page, 1905. 
Introduction to Political Science, Ginn, 

1910. 
Readings in Political Science, Ginn, 

1911. 
Problems in Political Evolution, Ginn, 

1914. 
Democracy and Empire, Macmillan, 

1900. 
Elements of Sociology, Macmillan, 

1898. 
Principles of Sociology, Macmillan, 

1908. 
Constructive Rural Sociology, Sturgis 

and Walton, 191 5 
City Government in the United States, 

Century, 1904. 
Comparative Administrative Law, Put- 
nam, 1893. 
Municipal Government, Macmillan, 

1909. 
The Principles of the Administrative 

Law of the United States, Putnam, 

1905. 
Politics and Administration, Macmil- 
lan, 1900. 
Social Reform and the Constitution, 

Macmillan, 191 1. 
The Nature and Sources of the Law, 

Columbia University Press, 1909. 
National and Local Finance, P. S. 

King & Son, 19 10. 
The Rise and Growth of the Gerry- 
mander, Scott Foresman, 1907. 
The American Doctrine of Judicial 

Supremacy, Macmillan, 19 14. 
Constitutional Law, Lasalle Extension 

University, 19 14. 



126 



TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 



*Hall, W. E. 
Harris, N. D. 

Harrison, B. 
Hart, A. B. 



Haskins, F. J. 

Hatton, A. R. 

*Hershey, A. S. 

Hill, Mabel 
Hillquit, Morris 



Holland, T. E. 

Holmes, O. W. 
Holt, Lucius Hudson 

"Howard, B. E. 
Howard, G. E. 



Howe, Frederic C. 



Ilbert, Courtney 
James, H. G. 



International Law, Oxford, 1910. 

Intervention and Colonization in 
Africa, Houghton, 19 14. 

This Country of Ours, Scribners, 1901. 

Actual Government, Longmans, 1908. 

Introduction to the Study of Federal 
Government, Ginn, 1891. 

American Government, Lippincott, 
1912. 

Digest of City Charters, Chicago 
Charter Convention, 1907. 

The Essentials of Public International 
Law, Macmillan, 19 14. 

Liberty Documents, Longmans, 1901. 

History of Socialism in the United 
States, Funk & Wagnalls, 1910. 

Socialism in Theory and Practice, 
Macmillan, 1909. 

The Elements of Jurisprudence, Ox- 
ford, 1 9 10. 

The Common Law, Little, Brown. 

An Introduction to the Study of Gov- 
ernment, Macmillan, 191 5. 

The German Empire, Macmillan, 1906. 

A Syllabus of Comparative Federal 
Institutions, University of Nebraska, 
1907. 

The City, the Hope of Democracy, 
Scribners, 19 14. 

European Cities at Work, Scribners, 
1914. 

The British City, the Beginnings of 
Democracy, Scribners, 1908. 

Wisconsin, An Experiment in De- 
mocracy, Scribners, 191 2. 

The Mechanics of Law Making, Co- 
lumbia University Press, 1914. 

Applied City Government, Harpers, 
1 9 14. 

Principles of Prussian Administration, 
Macmillan, 19 13. 



Jenks, Jeremiah W. 
*Jones, Chester Lloyd 



Kales, Albert M. 

Keith, A. B. 
Kelly, Edmond 
King, Clyde L. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 127 

Jenks, E. Law and Politics of the Middle Ages, 

Holt, 1905. 

A Short History of the English Law, 
Little, Brown, 191 2. 

Principles of Politics, Columbia Uni- 
versity Press, 1909. 

Readings on Parties and Elections in 
the United States, Macmillan, 191 2. 

Statute Law Making, Little, 191 2. 

Unpopular Government in the United 
States, University of Chicago Press, 
1914. 

Responsible Government in the Domin- 
ions, 3 v. Oxford, 191 2. 

Government or Human Evolution, 
Longmans, 1901. 

Regulation of Municipal Utilities, 
Appleton, 191 2. 

Lower Living Costs in Cities, Appleton, 

1913. 
Government and Politics of the Ger- 
man Empire, World Book Co., 

1915. 

Das StaatsrechtdesDeutschen Reiches, 
Tubingen, 191 1. 

America as a World Power, Harpers, 
1907. 

The Canadian Commonwealth, Bobbs- 
Merrill, 191 5. 

The Principles of International Law, 
Heath, 1895-1910. 

Documents Illustrative of International 
Law, Heath, 1914. 

Hand Book of International Law, 
Heath, 1910. 

Elements of Political Science, Hough- 
ton, 1906. 

The President's Cabinet, Yale Uni- 
versity Press, 191 2. 

Historical Jurisprudence, Macmillan, 
1900. 



*Kniger, Fritz-Konrad ,\ 



Laband, P. 
Latane, J. H. 
Laut, Agnes C. 
*Lawrence, T. J. 



*Leacock, S. 
Learned, H. B. 
Lee, Guy Carleton 



128 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Lecky, William Edward 



Lefroy, A. H. T. 

Lieber, Francis 
Lobingier, C. S. 
Lodge, H. C. 

Lloyd-George, D. 

*Low, Sidney 

*Lowell, A. Lawrence 



McCall, Samuel W. 

*McCarthy, Charles 
McClain, Emlin 

McConachie, L. G. 

McGehee, L. P. 

McKechnie, W. S. 

McKee, T. H. 

McLaughlin, Andrew C. 

MacLear, A. B. 

McVey, Frank L. 
*Macy, Jesse 



Democracy and Liberty, Longmans, 

1899. 
Canada's Federal System, Carswell Co., 

1913. 
Political Ethics, Little, Brown, 1838. 
The People's Law, Macmillan, 1909. 
Democracy of the Constitution, Scrib- 

ners, 191 5. 
The People's Budget, Hodder & 

Stoughton, 1909. 
The Governance of England, Putnam, 

1914. 
Public Opinion and Popular Govern- 
ment, Longmans, 19 14. 
Essays on Government, Houghton, 

1910. 
The Government of England, Mac- 

Millan, 19 14. 
Governments and Parties in Conti- 
nental Europe, Houghton, 1896. 
The Business of Congress, Columbia 

University Press, 191 1. 
The Wisconsin Idea, Macmillan, 191 2. 
Constitutional Law in the United 

States, Longmans, 19 10. 
Congressional Committees, Crowell, 

1898. 
Due Process of Law under the Federal 

Constitution, Thompson, 1906. 
The Individual and the State, Mac- 

Lehose, 1896. 
National Conventions and Platforms, 

Friedenwald, 1906. 
The Courts, the Constitution and 

Parties, University of Chicago Press, 

1912. 
Early New England Towns, Longmans, 

1908. 
The Making of a Town, McClurg, 1913. 
Party Organization and Machinery, 

Century, 1904. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 129 



*Macy, J., and J. W. Ganna- 

way 
Mahan, A. T. 

Maine, Sir H. 



Maitland, F. W. 
Marriot, J. A. 
Marsh, B. C. 

Mason, E. C. 
Matthews, Brander 

Medley, Dudley Julius 

*Merriam, C. E. 



Mm, j. s. 

Montesquieu, Baron de 
*Moore, John Bassett 



Moore, W. H. 
*Munro, W. B. 



Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson 



Political Parties in the United States, 
Macmillan, 191 1. 

Comparative Free Government, Mac- 
millan, 191 5. 

Interest of America in International 
Conditions, Little, Brown, 19 10. 

Ancient Law, Holt, 1907. 

Popular Government, Holt. 

Justice and Police, Macmillan, 1885. 

Second Chambers, Oxford, 1910. 

An Introduction to City Planning, 
B. C. Marsh, 1910. 

The Veto Power, Ginn, 1890. 

The American of the Future, Scrib- 
ners, 19 10. 

A Student's Manual of English Con- 
stitutional History, Macmillan, 19 13. 

American Political Theories, Mac- 
millan, 1906. 

Primary Elections, University of 
Chicago Press, 1908. 

Essay on Liberty, Longmans. 

The Spirit of Laws, Macmillan. 

A Digest of International Law, United 
States Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, 1906. 

American Diplomacy, Harper's, 1905. 

Four Phases of American Develop- 
ment, Johns Hopkins, 191 2. 

The Commonwealth of Australia, Max- 
well, 1 9 10. 

Government of American Cities, Mac- 
millan, 1 9 13. 

Government of European Cities, Mac- 
millan, 1909. 

Principles and Methods of Municipal 
Administration, Macmillan, 191 5. 

The Initiative, Referendum and Recall, 
Applet on, 19 1 2. 

The Referendum, Initiative and Re- 
call in America, Scribners, 191 2. 



130 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

*Ogg, Frederic Austin 
Oppenheimer, Franz 



*Ostrogorski, M. 



Poincare, R. 
Payne, E. J. 
Poley, A. 



Pollock, Sir Frederick 



Prussian Constitution 
Quick, J., and Garran 
Rae, John 
Ransom, W. L. 
*Ray, P. Orman 

Redlich, J., and Hirst 
*Reinsch, P. S. 



The Governments of Europe, Mac- 

millan, 19 14. 
The State. Trans, by Gitterman, 

Bobbs-Merrill, 1913. 
Democracy and the Organization of 

Political Parties, 2 v., Macmillan, 

1902. 
Democracy and the Party System, 

Macmillan, 19 10. 
How France is Governed, Unwin, 

1913. 

Colonies and Colonial Federation, Mac- 
millan, 1904. 

Federal Systems of the United States 
and British Empire, Little, Brown, 

1913. 
The Genius of the Common Law, 

Columbia University Press, 191 2. 
An Introduction to the History of the 

Science of Politics, Macmillan, 1902. 
Annals of American Academy of Politi- 
cal Science, July, 1894. 
Annotated Constitution of Australia, 

Australian, 1901. 
Contemporary Socialism, Scribners, 

1910. 
Majority Rule and the Judiciary, 

Scribners, 191 2. 
An Introduction to Political Parties 

and Practical Politics, Scribners, 

1913. 

Local Government in England, Mac- 
millan, 1906. 

American Legislatures and Legislative 
Methods, Century, 1907. 

Colonial Government, Macmillan, 
1902. 

Readings on American State Govern- 
ment, Ginn, 191 1. 

Readings on American Federal Gov- 
ernment, Ginn, 1909. 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 131 



Rhodes, J. F. 
Richardson, J. D. 

Roosevelt, Theodore 



Root, Elihu 
Rousseau, Jean Jacques 
Rowe, L. S. 
*Ryan, Oswald 

Schroter, A. 
Schuyler, Eugene 
Sedgwick, Arthur George 
Shaw, Albert 



Sidgwick, H. 
*Smith, J. A. 

Smith, Munroe 

Snow, A. H. 

Stanwood, E. 

Steflens, Lincoln 

Stimson, F. J. 



World Politics, Macmillan, 1900. 

The Presidential Office, Scribners, 1903. 

A Compilation of the Messages and 
Papers of the Presidents. 

American Ideals and Other Essays, 
Social and Political, Putnams, 1897. 

Autobiography, Macmillan, 19 13. 

The Citizen's Part in Government, 
Scribners, 1907. 

The Social Contract, George Allen, 
1912. 

Problems of City Government, Apple- 
ton, 1908. 

Municipal Freedom, a Study in Com- 
mission Government, Doubleday, 
Page, 191 5. 

Der deutsche Staatsburger, Leipzig, 
1912. 

American Diplomacy; the Furtherance 
of Commerce, Scribners, 1901. 

The Democratic Mistake, Scribners, 
1912. 

Political Problems of American De- 
velopment, Macmillan, 1907. 

Municipal Government in Conti- 
nental Europe, Macmillan, 1901. 

Municipal Government in Great Brit- 
ain, Macmillan, 1901. 

Elements of Politics, Macmillan, 1897. 

The Spirit of American Government, 
Macmillan, 1907. 

Jurisprudence, Columbia University 
Press, 1909. 

The Administration of Dependencies, 
Putnams, 1902. 

History of the Presidency, Houghton, 
1898 (later continued to 1909). 

The Shame of the Cities, Doubleday, 
Page, 1904. 

The Law of the Federal and State 
Constitutions, Boston, 1908. 



132 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Stockton, C. H. 
Story, Joseph 



Taft, W. H. 



Thayer, J. B. 
*Thorpe, F. N. 

Tocqueville, Alexis de 
Toulmin, Harry Aubrey 
Vincent, J. M. 
Wallace, Elizabeth 



Ward, E. J. 
Wendell, Barrett 

Wenzel, John 



Weyl, W. E. 

White, A. D. 
Wickersham, George W. 

Wilcox, D. F. 



Outlines of International Law, Scrib- 
ners, 1914. 

Commentaries on the Constitution, 
Little, Brown. 

Four Aspects of Civic Duty, Scribners, 
1906. 

Popular Government, Yale University 
Press, 1 9 13. 

Present Day Problems, Dodd, Mead, 
1908. 

Cases on Constitutional Law, Cam- 
bridge, 1895. 

The Federal and State Constitutions, 
United States Superintendent of 
Documents, 1909. 

Democracy in America, Thomas Henry 
Reeve, 1898. 

The City Manager, a New Profession, 
Appleton, 191 5. 

Government of Switzerland, Mac- 
millan, 1900. 

The Constitution of the Argentine 
Republic. The Constitution of the 
United States of Brazil, University 
of Chicago Press, 1894. 

The Social Center, Appleton, 191 2. 

Liberty, Union and Democracy, Scrib- 
ners, 1907. 

Comparative View of the Executive 
and Legislative Departments of the 
United States, France, England and 
Germany, Heath, 1909. 

The New Democracy, Macmillan, 
1912. 

Autobiography, Century, 1905. 

The Changing Order. Essays on Gov- 
ernment, Putnams, 1914. 

The American City: A Problem in 
Democracy, Macmillan, 1904. 

Government by all the People; or the 
Initiative, the Referendum and the 



SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. 133 



Willis, H. P. 
*Willoughby, W. W. 

*Willoughby, W. F. 
*Wilson, Woodrow 



Recall as Instruments of Democracy, 

Macmillan, 19 13. 
The Federal Reserve, Doubleday, 

Page, 1915. 
The American Constitutional System, 

Century, 1904. 
The Nature of the State, Macmillan, 

1903. 
Territories and Dependencies of the 

United States, Century, 1905. 
Congressional Government, Houghton, 

Mifflin, 1896. 
Constitutional Government in the 

United States, Columbia University 

Press, 191 1. 
An Old Master and Other Essays, 

Scribners, 1909. 
The State, Heath, 1898. 
Commonwealth of Australia, Little, 

Brown, 1909. 
Political Parties and Party Problems 

in the United States. Putnam, 1914. 
City Government by Commission, 

Applet on, 19 14. 
Writings of Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton and other leading states- 
men. 
Young, J. T. The New American Government and 

its Work, Macmillan, 191 5. 
Zueblin, Charles American Municipal Progress, Mac- 

millan (Revised edition), 1915. 



Wise, D. R. 

Woodburn, James Albert 

*Woodruff, Clinton Rogers 



C. Bureau of Reference for Study of Civic Affairs. 

In addition to general and special works of reference such 
as the above it is equally necessary to secure and have ready for 
constant use a considerable collection of material in the form of 
reports, documents and other government publications. Much 
of this material may be secured by a letter or card of inquiry to 
the officer or authority in charge. 

Among the things which such a Bureau should contain are: 



134 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

A. Official. 

Maps of city, county, state and nation with congressional, 
legislative and judicial districts. 

Reports of city, county, state and national officials, officers, 
departments, bureaus, boards and commissions. 

Ballots for city, county, and state elections in different states 
and communities. 

Notices for party conventions and primaries along with cam- 
paign yearbooks and official party literature. 

Legal notices and blanks (to be secured chiefly from offices of 
city and county clerks). 

Charters and ordinances for cities with special ordinances on 
health and sanitation, building regulations, etc. 

B. Unofficial — publications and reports of 

i. Local Chambers of Commerce, Civic Clubs and Improve- 
ment Associations. 

2. Charity Organization Societies, National Child Labor Com- 
mittee, National Congress on City Planning, National 
Civil Service Reform League, National Short Ballot Asso- 
ciation, National Housing Association, National Civic 
Federation, National Municipal League, American City 
Bureau, American Civic Association, Russell Sage Founda- 
tion, American Proportional Representation League, Play- 
ground and Recreation Association, National Committee 
on Prisons and Prison Labor, American Public Health 
Association, etc. 1 

C. Maps, Charts, Survey material prepared by students under the 

direction of the teacher of government. 

1 The Information Desk of "The Survey" gives the addresses of a majority 
of these organizations and societies. 



PART IV 

REPORT ON INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND 
UNIVERSITIES 

I. Preliminary Statement. 

During the year 191 2-13 a preliminary report was prepared 
dealing with instruction in political science in colleges and 
universities. Data for the report was secured from catalogues 
and from a form of questionnaire submitted to 500 institutions. 1 

Form of Questionnaire 
Name of College or University 



courses devoted to political science 
Kindly mark with * courses required of undergraduates 





Courses 


No. 
Hours 

per 
Week 


No. 
Under- 
grad- 
uates 


No. 
Grad- 
uates 


Method of In- 
struction used, 
(whether lec- 
tures, recita- 
tions, discus- 
sions, etc.) 


Text 
Books 

or 
Books 
for re- 
quired 
reading 


Name of 
Instructor 


American Gov- 
ernment 
National 
State 

Local, Rural, 
Municipal 
















Comparative 
Government 
















Political 
Theory 
















Elements of 
Law 
















Additional 
Courses 

















1 Acknowledgment is due the following men for the preparation of reports 
on the teaching of political science in particular states, and for valuable 

135 



136 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

1. What proportion of time and emphasis is given in instruction in 

government to — 

a. Constitutional history? 

b. Constitutional and legal framework of government? 

c. Governmental functions and activities? 

2. Is the department of political science rendering any practical serv- 

ice to the community or state? If so, what is the nature of this 
service? 

3. Are any courses offered or is any work specially designed to 

train teachers who expect to become instructors in govern- 
ment? 

4. In case an outline or syllabus is used with any courses offered in 

political science the committee will appreciate it if copies of 
same are submitted with this report. 

5. Have you any suggestions to offer relative to ways and methods by 

which the committee and the association may be able to improve 
instruction in government? 

Signed 

In the year 1913-14 another questionnaire was distributed 
through the Bureau of Education in order to supplement and 
render more accurate information already received as to courses 
offered in higher institutions. From the replies received and 
information previously gathered, a record of courses offered in 
531 institutions was prepared. In all but a few cases the record 
was approved by an officer of the college or university and 
represents correctly the courses announced l in each institution 
to May and June, 1914. 

assistance in the preparation of this report: W. J. Shepard, University of 
Missouri, W. M. Hunley, University of Virginia, Jesse S. Reeves, Univer- 
sity of Michigan, Carl Christophelsmeier, University of South Dakota, 
A. B. Hall, University of Wisconsin, Clyde L. King, University of Pennsyl- 
vania, J. E. Boyle, University of North Dakota, H. A. E. Chandler, Uni- 
versity of Arizona, F. W. Coker, Ohio State University, and C. S. Potts, 
University of Texas. 

1 It is necessary to remark that the courses announced in many instances 
do not represent the courses given in any one year and this is especially 
true where the courses are given every other or every third year as is often 
the case in small institutions. 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 137 

Hours were recorded in the revised table for the following 
subjects: 

1. American government. 

a. National. 

b. State and local. 

c. Municipal. 

2. General political science (courses based on volumes such 

as those of Garner, Leacock and Gettell). 

3. Comparative government. 

4. English government. 

5. International law. 

6. Diplomacy. 

7. World politics. 

8. Jurisprudence or elements of law. 

9. Commercial law. 

10. Roman law. 

11. Administrative law. 

12. Political theories (History of political thought). 

13. Party government. 

14. Colonial government. 

15. Legislative methods and legislative procedure. 

16. Current political problems. 

17. Municipal corporations. 

18. Law of officers and taxation. 

19. Seminar. 

20. Additional courses. 

For the purpose of its report the committee decided to include 
all institutions which chose to call themselves colleges or uni- 
versities and no effort was made to classify institutions or to 
eliminate those which ought more properly to be grouped with 
secondary schools. The original list for the purpose of sending 
inquiries was prepared from the list in the bulletin of the Bureau 
of Education to which were added a few additional colleges 
from the table in the World's Almanac. 



138 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Courses in English and American constitutional history, as 
well as in legal and political history are omitted in the final 
tabulation although it was frequently quite clear that such 
courses dealt primarily with government rather than history. 
These subjects are offered in a majority of schools in the depart- 
ment of history and there is a marked tendency to drop the 
courses entirely or to incorporate them as an integral part of the 
work offered in history. For sake of uniformity all such courses 
are omitted, although the committee recognizes a difference of 
opinion as to the advisability of dropping these subjects from 
the courses offered in departments of government. 

Several departments of political science include public finance 
and taxation which are usually offered as a part of the work in 
economics. Public finance is a subject to which both economics 
and political science may rightfully lay claim. It has become 
customary, however, to classify this study with economics and 
for practical purposes it may be excluded, even though like some 
other subjects in economics it involves matters of government 
and public affairs and may with equal propriety be included 
under the scope of political science. Commercial law when 
offered in a commercial department of sub-collegiate grade, 
and civil government, in a sub-collegiate or preparatory de- 
partment, are necessarily omitted. Government is often taught 
in connection with history, but when no separate hours are 
given to the subject no credit could be accorded in the tabula- 
tions. 

Some difficulties have arisen because courses in economics 
and sociology are occasionally classified within the department 
of political science. Despite the fact that such subjects are 
occasionally listed as political science the committee has excluded 
those which obviously belong to economics or sociology. For 
this reason several institutions are designated as offering no 
courses in political science in view of the fact that the scope of 
work was entirely in the fields of history, economics and so- 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 139 

ciology, departments of study not within the scope of this re- 
port. 

The table comprises primarily the courses presented to under- 
graduates and given in the school of arts and sciences. In the 
lists of the large universities many of the courses included are 
open to graduates and undergraduates while a few are open to 
graduate students only. Owing to the lack of uniformity in 
announcing these courses it was impossible to make separate 
classes, consequently all of the regularly published courses are 
included whether open to undergraduates, to both graduates 
and undergraduates, or to graduates only. Most of the large 
universities offer advanced work for graduates for which hours 
are not determined, and as a result the total hours for several 
universities is necessarily smaller than the actual work done. 
Since many colleges failed to report the number of courses and 
hours actually given each year the committee was obliged to 
accept and include in its tabulations the hours announced. 
In a few instances it is quite obvious that this total by no means 
corresponds to the work given each year. 

Political science courses listed in the table are sometimes 
offered in departments of economics and history or in the law 
school. In some instances regular law courses, including some 
of those covered in the table, are open to qualified undergrad- 
uates and it is very difficult to indicate what work is done in 
the field of political science as defined by the committee. The 
relation between law and political science is, as one instructor 
suggests, in a hopeless confusion, and it doubtless would be ad- 
vantageous for this matter to receive careful consideration by 
the Association. When it was clearly indicated that work was 
offered by other departments this fact is noted. In the great 
majority of cases the record gives the courses now offered, but 
on account of changes very recently made a few colleges found 
it necessary to present the courses to be given the next year. 
Courses given in alternate years or less frequently are usually 



140 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

so designated. It is very evident that the quality of instruction 
varies widely and that a bare total of hours scheduled overrates 
the emphasis given to political science in some institutions 
and underrates that given in others. Some universities offer 
cycles of courses and thereby cover a much wider range than the 
list given in the table would indicate. On the other hand, a 
large total of hours made up mostly of elementary courses is 
scarcely to be compared with the same number of hours given 
in fewer courses and primarily to graduate students, yet by the 
table such institutions might be rated exactly the same. The 
committee is aware of this and other difficulties involved in 
presenting data as to courses announced and given in higher 
institutions. But despite these difficulties the table presents 
information which it was thought should be available to all 
instructors in the field. 





m©x 


O Q O <0 O *© "<J- OQO O 

O O »0 M vo Ol 


asinoD [Buopippy 




asjnoD puopjppv 




jemmdg 


A 


nop^xBj, 




suoijuiodio;} [Bdppnnyj 




sragjqoij 




Old ™d pu*. 
spoqtppq; 9ApB|siSaT; 




lugramsAOQ feiuojo^ 


o 


;U9UIUJ9AOO A'jlBJ 


o 


S9uoaqx I^opil *! 


oo 

M 


m«i 9ApBj;simrapv 




m"bi i«nopn)i;suo3 




mb^ tremo^ 




M"B7 IBlDJ9raUI03 


oo 
o 


AiEq JO S}U9UI 

-9]3 jo 9DU9prudsun£ 




^WPd PI I0 AV 


OO 


^DBraojdiQ 




M^q pnopBui9;ui 


o o 


;u9rani9A03 qsijSua 


o 


in9UlUJ9AOQ 

aAp^jBdaio^ 


o O oo "*• 
»0 C> >0 vj 


93U9ID§ 


<N OO 

t^ o 

M 


Is 

C a 
a ii 

B > 

< o 

a 


{"BdtDiunj^; 
'(3) 


O M 

to vo 


rraoq pu-e 91'eis 

(q) 


o 

»o 


IBuoq^jsj 


O O *t <N 

\n o* to f* 




SS 

jl 


Adelphi Coll., 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Adelbert Coll., 
Cleveland, Ohio 

Adrian Coll., 
Adrian, Mich. 

Agnes Scott Coll., 
Decatur, Ga. 

Agricultural and 
Mechanical 
Coll., College 
Station, Tex. 

Agricultural Coll. 
of Utah, Lo- 
gan, U. 

Albany Coll., Al- 
bany, Ore. 

Albert Lea Coll., 
Albert Lea, 
Minn. 

Albion Coll., Al- 
bion, Mich. 

Albright Coll., 
Myerstown, Pa. 

Alcorn Agricul- 
tural and Me- 
chanical Coll., 
Alcorn, Miss. 



141 





F;ox 


O^oorj- OO O Tf OvOO 

M m ro M C* M W 


9SinoD i^uoprppy 




9SJH0D i^uopippy 


C/3 


JBUIUI9S 


CO 


UOp'BX'BX 
pn"B SJ9DOJO jo m&I 




suoi;^jodi03 pdpiunj\[ 




sra^qoij 




OJJ ubj pm? 
spoq;9j^; 9ApB|SiS9']; 




1U9UIUI9AOQ piU0p3 




;U9XnUJ9A0f) X^IBJ 




S9U09qx F 3 njl°d 


00 OO 
O M 


a\^i 9Apt?j;siuiuipy 




m^i |Buoi;n;psuo3 




M^q UBrao-g; 




m^t; imDJ9uiui03 




/AVJ jo s;u9m 
-913 J0 33U9pnjdsiinf 




rapipd PFoav 




^DBUI0{dl(I 




MB'j puoi;^uJ9;ui 




;u9uiuj9aoq qsiiSug 


OO 

O 


^U9UiaJ9AOQ 
9Ap^J^dUi03 


^t vo co n oo 
*o «o o r^ m 


9DU9ID§ 
IBDIIJIOJ JT3J9U93 


Tt OO CO 
lO O M 


.9 § 

5 £ 

c (U 

5 J 


pdiDiunpy; 


OO 


JBDOq pUTJ 9;U^S 

(q) 




pnionuNj 


Tf VO OO Tf O C« O 




1| 


Alfred Univ., Al- 
fred, N. Y. 

Allegheny Coll., 
Meadville, Pa. 

Allentown Coll. 
for Women, 
Allentown, Pa. 

Alma Coll., 
Alma, Mich. 

Amer. Int. Coll., 
Springfield, 
Mass. 

Amherst Coll., 
Amherst, Mass. 

Antioch Coll., 
Yellow-Spring, 
Ohio 

Arkansas Coll., 
Batesville, 
Ark. 

Arkansas Cum- 
berland Coll., 
Clarksville, 
Ark. 

Armour Inst, of 
Technology, 
Chicago, 111. 

Asbury Coll., 
Louisville, Ky. 



142 



: 



o 



o 
o 






r- 






U cd 

< 



5 W 3&<T 



PW 



rj-3 I 



< < 



'-3 3? 



tor 



^-d 















< 



< 



m h a h m pi w m ffi m mm 
143 



S3 








l**°X 


O O « O 00 *o 00 o -* 

so n oo to o\ 

»-« M N H H VO 


asmoD praoprppv 




asinoD pmoprppy 


w 


jBuiraag 




UOl}13XBX 
pUB SJ9DQJO J° M ^T 




suopBiod.103 redpnmp^ 




sragiqojj; 
iropnoj ;u9un3 




•ojj jtjj put* 

SpOq^9J^ 9Ap^{Sl297 


CO 

o 


}U9raUJ9AOQ piU0{03 




^U90inJ9AOQ X;j^j 




S9ii09qx I^opipj 


oo 

o 


M^q gApBi^siuirapY 




m.vj puopn^psuo3 


CO to 


M.VJ U"BU10^ 


VO 
CO 


A\Bq ppi9rarao3 


O 

vO 


M-B^ JO S}U9UI 

-9{3 jo 9DU9pnjdsLmf 


OO «* 
O to 

H o 


sopijoj pijo^v 




XD^uiO[di(i 




MV| reuopuiugjui 


to t- VO 


;o9innj9AOQ qsrjSug 




}U9UIUI9AOQ 

9Ai; - BjBduio3 


M Tj- 
VO to 


9DU9IDS 
popuoj jt?J9n9Q 


OO vO -^" rt 
O CO to to 


a 3 

•p 

o E 

< o 

o 


ItJdiDiunj^; 


M Tl- 
tO to 


{■Booq pu"B 9}T?}c; 

(q) 




p?Tioi:njjyj 


O M Tt Tt 

vo to to to 




■1 


Birmingham Coll. 

Birmingham, 

Ala. 
Biddle Univ., 

Charlotte, 

N. Ca. 
Blackburn Coll., 

Carlinville, 111. 
Blue Mountain 

Coll., Blue Mt., 

Miss. 
Blue Ridge Coll., 

New Windsor, 

Md. 
Boston Univ., 

Boston, Mass. 
Bowdoin Coll., 

Brunswick, Me. 
Bowdon College, 

Bowdon, Ga. 
Brenau College, 

Gainesville, 

Ga. 
BridgewaterColl., 

Bridgewater, 

Va. 
Brown m Univ., 

Providence, 

R.I. 



144 






.9 M 

3° O 

u 






S( 



pq 



=3:§'>e 






« m °h Ort'-" O^^ ifl " O G 



il 









_T3 __ 



-2 •_ c or) 

^ " S fl 8 S's 3 » 



ai 



^ O 4) 



O u u 
I4S 



u u 



l^oj, 



asjnoo jBuopippv 






H^O 



9&inoD jBuopippy 






jBuiraag 



puis saadgjo J° M ^T 



suopuiodio;} jBdiDiunpi 






00 



•oi<i IB <I P UT3 

spoq^ap^ aApBjsiSa'j 



;u3raoi9AOQ |muo{03 



^nauinjaAOQ a^jej 



S9U03qx pB3pjl°d! 



a\vj 3Ai;Bj;siuiuipv 



m.vj pnoiiniiisucQ 



AITS'! UT3UIO^[ 



MB^ t-BIDJ3UIUl03 



/&VJ JO S}U9UI 
-3{3 JO 3DU3ptUdSIjnf 



SDpqoj pjio^w 



0» 
09 



ADEUlOldlQ 



Mtjq |Buopt?uj3;ai 



;u3oioj3aoq qsiiSug 



3UDUIUJDAOQ 
3ApBJTJdlU03 



3DU3ID§ 
IBDpi|OJ JEJ3U3Q 




2 



00 

r-i 



9i 
00 



.2 

iSl 









» 


1 


7^ 


.Suu 


£1 


— 


-a 

.22.2 


P 


+3 cd 


4J O 


u 


U 


u 




U 



S^'Sl -a 






f;ox 


n© ** 00 too t> 00 o> 

M W CO lO 00 o> 

« CO Ct M CI 


asjnoD [Buoi}ippv 


M'n 
Civil 
Law 

45 


9&inoD praopippy 




J^UIUI3S 




A* 


UOI}13XBX 
pUB SJ3DOJO J° Mir I 




NO 


suoi;bjocIjo3 psdpiunp^ 




NO 


siusiqojj 




Old '™d P a * 
spoqisp^; 3ApB|Si23q 




}U3imiI3A03 |BIU0103 




;U3UinJ3A0Q A'lltfjl 


•<* 
»o 


ssuoaqx P^PHOJ 




M 


M^q 3Ai;^a;SlUlU3pV 




M^q ]^nopn;psuo3 


IO to NO 

M 


m^i ubuio^; 


IO 


MT2q 1BIDJ3UIU103 


OO 

CO 


M'B'J JO S}U3UI 

-3J3 jo 3DU3pnjdsunf 


to 10 ^" 


K>pn d PF°AV 




A"DBUlO[dlQ 


3 

Ci 


mttj i^uopBUJ3;ai 


«t 

tO NO 


^asraujSAOQ qsi|3na 


NO 

CO 




^aaaiuj3AOQ 
9ApBJBdrao3 


00 •«* no O 

O to CO NO 




3D03IDS 
IBDl^ljOJ i^J3U33 


^ Ti- 
to to 

« 


il 

ll 


jTjdiDiunj^ 




o» 


l^ooq pau 3?^s 

(q) 


10 


|tuoi4Vj^[ 


CO Tj" ^f Tt OO IO 
jq O »0 IT) tO O I s " 




1 9 
■ .2 

c * 


Coll. of Idaho, 
Caldwell, Idaho. 

College of New 
Rochelle, New 
Rochelle, N. Y. 

Coll. of the Pacific, 
San Jose, Calif. 

Coll. of the Sacred 
Heart, Denver, 
Colo. 

Coll. for Women, 
Columbia, 
S. Ca. 

Colorado Agri. 
Coll., Fort Col- 
lins, Colo. 

Colorado Coll., 
Colorado 
Springs, Colo. 

Colorado School 
of Mines, 
Golden, Colo. 

Columbia Coll., 
College Place, 
S. Ca. 

Columbia Uni- 
versity, New 
York City, 
N. Y. 



148 



* *8 

00 H 



u 






I**>X 


rj- O Q«-*NtJ>OOnO 0> v© NO 

O »» 0«^»OCO*0 t^M 0> O M 

10 Tt to ^ ton tow 


9SinoD pnopippv 




asjnoD jBaopippv 


a 


iBmraag 


t^ 


UOI}BX13X 

pnu si9ongo jo avbi 


00 

Tt 


suoi;wodJ03 iBdpixmj^; 




singiqoij 
IBDpqoj ^U9un3 




•ojj j^j put? 
spoq}9j^; 9ApB^si397 




}U9UItLI9AO0 IBTUOIO3 




;n9UIUJ9AOf) a'ijibj 


vO 

co 


sgtioaqj, pnpifOj 





MlVJ 9Ai;Bj;srmnipv 


H R 


m^t; pnopnipsuo^ 


N Tt VO 

t^ to CO 




m-bi UBUIO^ 




ME'J J^TDJ9UIUI03 


vO -^ VO 00 
CO Tt co O 

O MM 


MB^J JO SJU9UJ 

-9J3 jo 9DU9prudsunjf 


NO d rt vo 
t^. Ov t^ Tt co 


SD P!I°d" PH°A\ 




XDBraojdiQ 


VO 
co 


M^q i^uopBaj9;ai 


vO O N OO N 


;u9uiuj9aoq qsijSug 




5n9rauj9A09 
9Ai; , Bj^duio3 


N O vO vO 
t>. vo CO co 


9DU9ID§ 
ITJDpiJOJ JTJJ9U9Q 


OO rj-es T^-Tt vOvO 
0>vO iot>» rJ-tO toco 


c S 

i g 

5 J 


I^diDiunj^; 


vo tI- vo vo 
co N to CO 


lUDO'j pui? 9;b;§ 

(q) 


Tt vo 

r« co 


imion^ 


Tt O VO Tt Tt O VO 

10 OO co rt W 0> co 

r* M M M -1 - 




1.8 

i <5 


De Paul Univ., 

Chicago, 111. 
De Pauw Univ., 

Greencastle, 

Ind. 
Des Moines Coll., 

Des Moines 

la. 
Dickinson Coll., 

Carlisle, Pa. 
Doane College, 

Crete, Neb. 
Drake Univ., Des 

Moines, la. 
Drury College, 

Springfield, Mo. 
Duquesne Univ., 

Pittsburg, Pa. 
Eastern College, 

Manassas, Va. 
Earlham Coll., 

Richmond, Ind. 
Elizabeth Coll., 

Charlotte, 

N. Ca. 
Ellsworth Coll., 

Iowa Falls, la. 
Elmira College, 

Elmira, N. Y. 



ISO 



O r>. t-» 









fa 



» *-W^.g.g{^ Jsfa.gfajo > p o«2^2 £fa gfa g*S c 

fa fa fa '£ '£ £ fo fe fe 



4) > 




w>*S cj a 




*£>£> 


o 


co bo 




rederick 
Coll., 
icksbur 

urman 


> 
a 
g 


O 


fa fa 





o 



l*V>X 



asinoD pnopippy 



* 5 






asjnoD jBuoi^ippv 



9DIAJ3S % 

jjnsuo3 



j^airaag 



aoijiJx'ejL 
pnB &i9D^go J° M<B 1 



saopEjodJO^ pdiDianj^ 






•oij -jbj pa* 
spoq}9j^; 9Ap^jsi29'j 



}tI3lIItII9AO0 1^100103 



;U9mUJ9A0Q A"in2<J 



S9iJ09qx l^PJPd 



mbi gAi^j^siairapv 



M'e'j puopn;i;suo3 



M127 irerao^j 



M-CJ IBTDJ9UIUI03 



MBq JO S}U9UI 

-9{3 jo 9Da9pradsunf 



o 

00 

t« 

<£> 



SDpiIOJ pjIO^ 



Ad^oioicIiq 



m^i ibuoi;t3oj9;ui 



;a9uiuJ9AOQ qsijSug; 



1U3UIUJ9AOQ 

9Ai;ujuduio3 



9DU9ID§ 

l^opiioj |BJ9n30 



.31 

C c 

si 



|T2diDiunj\[ 



\vo<yj pun 3)c)§ 

(q) 



|T?uoq^ 



CO 



II 



a 



51 • 

e « 

o o 



£ to 



o 3 - So &■« 

u o >pq u .u ^ </> 

«. s • £?fc"3 £3 .Ja o y * a 
o o^QOH<gUO^OgPQ 2 

o a o a a 



w <u *-> 

rt > to 



►3 =3 

'Ml 



O O u c 

O 






152 



O PQ 



Mi: 



o *J wo© 



9? ©diqs 



=3 • ft<« 



°gg 

^> Ml Ml 

o o o 



=3 Sc=3 "o 



on 






S3 d 

o> d 

d'C 

.So 



o o o 
153 






•3.S £ a>'o'o-d 
- ' ) d d 



■> - d d^na . ^ 



:d d 

15.. 

K ffl 






g o 5 S rtJ2 



*S 



in 

, tn d 
I bo*x3 

d W3 





mox 


N v© M O -* 0© OOvoO OO 
Ot CO VO M 10 O M 
M CO M M M C| 


ssjnoD jimoiiTppv 




asinoD puoprppy 




j-ratrass 




nopBXtfx 
puu si9Drjgo jo mvj 




suop^iod.103 rBdiDiunj^ 




sui9jqo.i c [ 
I^oiiijoj ^U9jjn3 




•ojx it^ pm? 
spoq}9j^ aAp-eisiSg"! 




3U9UIUI9A09 |muop3 


f 


;n9raui9A0Q ^jb<j 


00 


S9iJ09qx P 23 !*?! *! 





iavj 9Ai^i^simrapY 


00 


m^ pmoprqpsnxQ 


00 


Mir[ u^rao^ 




/avj ]^pj9raui03 


00 Tf 


MB'J jo S;U9UI 

-9J3 jo 9DU9pnjdnjnf 


00 


Bapfpd piio^w 




XD^rao[diQ 




mttj puoi;Buj9;ui 


00 vO tJ- 
^ cO 10 




;u9raoj9A0Q qsjiSag 


O co 


1U9UIUJ9A03 
9ApBJUdUJ03 


CO co 


93U9JD§ 


\0 O 
co *■€> 


.8 £ 

J > 

< 
O 


judiDiunj^ 


00 O 
<«* co 

3 


I^Doq pUB 9}B}S 

(q) 


10 




OO 00 *t »* "• 

^ <^ in »o »o 




If 

II ■ 


Haverford Coll., 

Haverford, 

Pa. 
Hedding College, 

Abington, 111. 
Heidelberg Univ., 

Tiffin, Ohio 
Hendrix College, 

Conway, Ark. 
Henry Kendall 

Coll., Tulsa, 

Okla. 
Highland Coll., 

Highland, Kan. 
Hillman College, 

for Young 

Women, Clin- 
ton, Mass. 
Hillsdale College, 

Hillsdale, Mich. 
Hiram College, 

Hiram, Ohio 
Hiwassee Coll., 

Hiwassee Coll., 

Tenn. 
Hobart College, 

Geneva, N. Y. 
Hollins College, 

Hollins, Ya. 



154 



00 N V© 

CO M W 









o s 

H 



0E 









155 



o o 



>> o 

t> o 



as 






P 
b"c3 



22 *Z. r.22 £ 2 .22 ~ r <u 



a o a 
S.SP. 



bo O o^ 



>s O.S 



3 «*-• 



^^ ^2 






-i 





p*>X 


vO OOO «*■ . OO vo -*• ei « *■ 
to OOO tJ-OOOO «vOvO vo 

^MW M CM vN COM H 


asjnoD puopippv 




asinoD pnopippy 


£ 


j"Baira9s 


cs 

J3 *" 


UOI}BXBX 
pU"B SJ9DUJO JO ^^1 




suoiiBJOd.103 jBdpiunj^; 




sai9[qoj(j 
iropijo^ ;u9un3 




•ojj -m^ pui? 
spoqi9j^ aAiiBfsiSai 


00 


}U9UIUJ9A03 |mU0{03 




}U9raUI9AOQ X^IBjJ 


vO 00 

CO M 


S9U09qj, [B3t)i]Oj 


vO 

CO 


AiTj^j 9Ap^j;simuipy 




avo^ puopn^i;suo3 


O <* <N Tj- 

vO to t^ vo 




m^i u^rao^ 




MB7 ^pj9rarao3 


<N 


UlVJ JO S1U9UI 

-9J3 jo 9DU9pnjdsunf 


<N O vo 

l>- vo CO 


SD 9]\°d PI J0 A\ 




ADEUJOldlQ 


vo 
CO 


MB'J {BU0I^BUJ91UI 


O vo vo tJ- 
VO co co vo 

O 


3U9UIUJ9A03 qsqSug 


O vo O 

vO co vo 


1U9UIUJ9AOQ 
9AIlBJ^dlU03 


O t vo OO 
vo vo co O 

*c3 


9DU9pS 
lEDiaqOtJ JBJ9U9Q 


Tj" O VO Tj- Tt 

vo Ov ^t vo vo 


§1 
5 (5 


pdiDiunj^ 
0>) 




VO 


ITJDOq pUTJ 91Blg 

(q) 


O O 

vo vo 


ITJUOqt'jvJ 


O OO tJ- -J- O Tf 
vo O vo vo vo vo 

9 'o 




■J 


Iowa State Teach- 
ers Coll., Cedar 
Falls, la. 

Iowa Wesleyan 
Coll., Mt. Pleas- 
ant, la. 

In-ing Coll., Me- 
chanicsburg.Pa. 

Jamestown Coll., 
Jamestown, 
N. Da. 

James Milliken 
Univ., Decatur, 
111. 

John B. Stetson 
Univ., Deland, 
Fla. 

Johns Hopkins 
Univ., Balti- 
more, Md. 

Juniata College, 
Huntingdon, 
Pa. 

Kalamazoo Coll., 
Kalamazoo 
College, Mich. 

Kansas Wesleyan 
Univ., Salina, 
Kan. 



156 



£ <8 







CO 














T* 

to 

M<B, TI< n0 3 


CO 




















43 






43 


NO 

CO 




CO 




O 
C4 




s 




00 

i-4 


<3 








to 


T-l 


NO 
CO 


<* 










Ti- 
to 




CO 














2 




i-4 




co 

M 








■* 
-* 






CO 


o 

o> 




o 




o» 




00 




t- 






"1- 
to 






oo 


<8 

M 






Ti- 
to 


tt 
to 


<© 










oo 














to 




* 






Ti- 
to 






O <M 
cs t>. 










•<* 
to 


w 






to 




00 

o 










to 




« 




»-l 


00 


oo 


to 

JO 






OO 
00 


to 






t>- 





< o 

CO b ed 









M 



M M MM MM 5 J 
157 



§> 

O en 






2U§ 

GgOo 
n4 



•=3-t3 Ujj fl . 



' . W SU^s . £ a c=3 • 
43 cd b ft g O etf 

J tJ 1-1 



mox 



asjnoD puopippy 



asinoo i^aopippy 



lemmas 



nop^xBx 
pm2 sj33tgo JO M ^T 



saoi^BJOdJ03 redpitmpj 






OJJ I12J pUB 

spoq;9j\[ aAp'BlsiSo'i 



}U9raui9AOQ imnop^ 



1U9UIILI9AOQ A}!^ 



S9U09qx P^pipj 



J&VJ 9ApBJ;SIUIUipV 



m.vj puopnipstKQ 



M.VJ trBUIO}£ 



m^7 ppj9rarao3 



MTTJ jo siL'9m 
-9]3 jo 9DU9pai(isunf 



^nn°d PI J0 AV 



XD^UlOldlQ 



MB^J 112U0I}BUI9}UI 



}U9oiuj9A0*) qsrjSug 



^U90IUJ9AOQ 
9Ai;BJBdui03 



9D09IDS 
|BDi;t|OJ JBJ9U9Q 



c c 

.9 E 

o c 
. > 

a 



pjdioiunj^ 



JVDOq put? 9}B?S 

(q) 









««5 



-a ti CO 
M 2 ?. c 






ti o « o 

2« -*.g 

.i— 3 ° c c <v 



158 



,2 >>.£ . o rt ^ rt 6 IS 



3 1 



slt.^ O C O c *-> O— S"o=3 

>-3 



2"< « 



£ 



*>. so 






SO'3 



tJ 'S . O.S O « jg o a) c3 O 

PM >>U ciCO rtZ cd<5 sJiJU(^5 cj^H rt 



=a C3 =d 









S £ S £ 



s 



W> Oii 



2 



I to C^i 



(3 rt 






o 
"a 

_ o 

C3 en 






. s 



£ 2 £ £ 









159 





i**>x 


O *» CO vo O O Own WQ 
so O vo *0 vo r- *>. v© O 

M M 04 VO M 


9SinoD i-euopippv 




9SjnoD puopippv 


Pub. 
Util. 

54 


jBoira9S 




uop^x-ex 

pWB SJ9DUJ0 JO &&J 




suopBiod.103 jBdpiunj\[ 




soi9iqoj^ 
pORH°d[ ^9iin3 


o 


•ojj -j^j puB 
spoq;9j^; 9Ap'BisrS9 r j 




}U9aiaj9A09 1131110103 




4U9UIILI9A0*) AlB^ 




sguogqj, pKH^rjoj 




m^7 9ApBj;simuipv 




M127 ^aopn^psuo3 


o 

vo 


awj ueoio^; 


O 
vo 
3 


jav-j piDJ9rauio3 


M O 

vo vo 

<3 


AWJ JO S}U9UI 

-913 JO aonapiudrijnf 


8 

H 


SD nn°d PF°M 




XOTJUIOldlQ 




M^'j puopBUJ9;ui 


O 
vo 


3U9raui9AOQ qsrjSug 


O oo 


1U9UIUJ9AOQ 

9Ai;BjBdai03 


o «J" 
vo vo 


9D09IDS 
pDpjIOJ JTJJ9U9Q 


* 00 o o 
vo O so vo 


i! 

5 <S 


pdiDiunj^ 


O t}- 
vo vo 


I^Doq puB 9;b^s 

(q) 




l"nuoi}T?_N 


OO <N O <N (S Tt OO 

O O vo r^ t^ vo m 

H M N N N q „ 




c 5 
rt.2 

11 


Meredith Coll., 
Raleigh, N. Ca. 

Meridian Worn- 
ans Coll., Me- 
ridian, Miss. 

Methodist Univ. 
of Oklahoma, 
Guthrie, Okla. 

Miami Univ., Ox- 
ford, Ohio 

Michigan Agri- 
cultural Coll., 
East Lansing, 
Mich. 

Michigan Coll. of 
Mines, Hough- 
ton, Mich. 

Middlebury Coll., 
Middlebury, 
Vt. 

Midland College, 
Atchison, Kan. 

Milligan College, 
Milligan, Tenn. 

Mills College, 
Oakland, Cal- 
ifornia 

Millsaps College, 
Jackson, Miss. 



160 






8 ^^J S§ :Sa 



w ,a 



3.a £ 



<L> 






feu 



w s 

£ re 

t= ^_- r ~3_r . 3^ " 

tn—i wjr O 3 c/i O- 









r a a 



: o.£ 



ri r* !? !*r3.£i . SJ> *-' i2.— »— • . ^li nj-^ t/j o ■— ' no 2 



2 S 



2 



s s 



s 



z6z 



■ 


— i 


£ to 









— i 


crt ^ 




Cd 










U 


45 


M S 


CO! 
O 


■5 


3 



_*3 


s 




3 


S 


S-3 


a> 


a 


s 


8 


££ 


3 

pq 


rt 


a 
o 


S 


§£ 


3 
C 









■— ■ — *> 



^ > §5 



s s s 






law 



38 i 





r**>x 


NPIOVO O N O OoOOcO 

t>. VO M VO O OO CO 
vN <N tN m CI M 


asjnoD jEuopippy 




9smoD jEuopippy 


w 


JBUTUI9S 




UOIJEXEJ, 
pUE SJ9DOJO JO M-VJ 




suoiiEJOd.103 rEdpiunj^; 




SUteiqOI^ 

jEDpijoj ;u9im3 




OJ^ JEJ pUE 

spoqtpj^; gAi^Eisx^gq 




;U9raUJ9A0Q |EIU0I03 




;n9OIUJ9A0Q XlJEJ 




S9ii09qx F 3 PH°a: 


OO vo 
O co 


me^j 9ApEj^simrapv 




me^j fEuopn;i;suo3 


CS vo 
f. CO 


/AVJ UEIU0^[ 


vo 
CO 


ME7 iEpj9uimo3 


Tf O 

vo "<fr 


/AVJ JO S1U90I 

-9J3 jo 9DU9pnjdsjmf 




SD Pn o <i pi j °aa 




XDEUIOldlQ 




ME7 ieuoj;euj91ui 


VO 
CO 


3U9OIUJ9A09 qsijSug 


vo 
CO 


^U9UIUJ9A03 
9Ai;EJEdCU03 


VO rf Tj- 00 
CO vo vo CO 




9DU9p§ 

F D nn o d jwauao 


CS VO *t ** CO 
t^ co vo vo CO 




c c 
.2 B 

E S 

< 




IEdiDiunj\[ 


00 **» 

CO O ^ 


JEDOq pUE 9;E^S 

(q) 




|EUOI}E^ 


N «T O VO 
t^ vo vo CO 




1.1 

s § 

£3 


Morgan College, 
Baltimore, Md. 

Morningside Coll., 
Sioux City, la. 

Morehouse Coll., 
Atlanta, Ga. 

Morris Harvey 
Coll., Barbours- 
ville, W. Ya. 

Mount Angel 
Coll., Mount 
Angel, Ore. 

Mount Holyoke 
Coll., South 
Hadley, Mass. 

Mount Saint Jo- 
seph's College, 
Baltimore, Md. 

Mount Saint 
Mary's College, 
Emmittsburg, 
Md. 

Mount Union- 
Scio Coll., Al- 
liance, Ohio 

Muhlenberg Coll., 
Allentown, Pa. 

Municipal Un. of 
Akron, Akron, 0. 



162 



^-"g- > a "5 ! 



© 



£-~.a « =i 



s *§ 






3^ O i 



.§^ 



• u * 



^cn 



S 



£ fc £ fc fc 5 



3 £ £ 



S3 bo'Soi .Sco 



*U££, 



'-IS-gd ^d 






>;cj , 



163 





I^QX 


<* « O O s© O "t s© OO 

CM to O M NO O •• CO M 

CM NO Ci IO M Tf CM 


asjnoD iBoopippy 




asjnoo jBuoprppy 


U {J CO 173 


j^oirass 




UOltJBXBJ, 
pnc SJSDLgO JO M.VJ 




saopEiodJ03 jBdpiunj^ 




suisiqoijj 
iroprjo^ ;u3jun3 




•ojj iv^ pu^ 
spoqisj^; 3Ai;-Bisr33q 




;n3rani3A0Q |muojo3 




CO 


^aaraujsAOQ 611V& 


to O 


ssuoaqx popipd 


CM 


wj 3Ap^j;siuirapv 




MB7 i"Buot;n^psao3 


00 vo no ■<*■ O 

M ^f CO tO CM 


mbi tremo^ 


NO 

CO 




bt&j i^TDJ3rarao3 


O NO VO 

no fO CO 


mitt jo S}ii3in 
-3J3 JO Mnapaidsiinf 


* so 
to CO 


^PHOd" PI-*°AY 




XD^raoidjQ 


<<*• 
^ 10 

CM 


javj \vuo\ivui9)ui 


•<fr to NO Tf 
to Tl" co to 




}U3raaj3AO£) qsjl^aa 




1U3UIUJ3A0*) 

3Ai;Bj^dino3 


NO Tj- OO «t O 

CO to O to so 

<3 


3DU3ID§ 
IBDpiJOJ JBJ303Q 


CM IO Tj- O 

H 


§1 


jBdiDiun^; 


to *f 
Tf to 


(q) 


to 


puoqu^ 
(*) 


Tj- CM IO O "^ O SO 
CM t- Tj- SO IO SO CO 




■•9 

e * 


North Dakota 

Agri. College, 

Agri. College, 

N. D. 
Northwestern 

Coll., Naper- 

ville, 111. 
Northwestern 

Coll., Water- 
town, Wis. 
Northwestern 

Univ., Evans- 
ton, 111. 
Norwich Univ., 

Northfield, Vt. 
Oakland City Col., 

Oakland City, 

Ind. 
Oberlin College, 

Oberlin, Ohio 
Occidental Coll., 

Los Angeles, 

Calif. 
Ogden College, 

Bowling Green, 

Ky. 
Ohio Northern 

Univ., Ada, 

Ohio 



U o 






P1°X 


in ooO O mOOvo 
t*. MOvoc»Oi^ CO 

CJ Ol CO H 


asinoD jBuopippv 




asjnoD i^nopippy 


U CO HH CO 


iBotuias 




uop^x^x 




snou^jod.103 j-edpmnj^; 




suigjqojj 
irapiioj ;u9Jjn3 




'O^d ™d P ul? 
spoq^3p\[ gAp^jsiSgT; 




lU9tnUJ3A0Q |^IU0|03 


to 


;u3aiuj3A0Q X;jbj 


lO 


S9U09qjL pOpTjOJ 




MB7 9Ai;Ej;siuiuipy 




awj |-Buoi;n;i;suo3 




awj uBcao^; 


VO 

CO 


mui |^pj9uiui03 


VO Tj- 

co CO 


Ai^q jo s;u9ui 
-9jg; jo 9DU3pnjdsunf 




SDpqoj pjJOAV 




XD-CUJOldlQ 


\0 M 
CO to 


M'B'J ^UOpTJUjg^UJ 


<N O Tt" M 
t-» VO W vo 


1U9UIUJ9AOQ qsqSug 




;UDUIUJ9AOQ 

9A{;BjBdui03 


cs o M O vo 
CO O V» vo CO 


3DU9IDS 


«* 
a 


J 8 

< o 

a 


irdoiun]^ 
'(3) 


lO 


JBDOq pUB 9}T?1S 

(q) 




jBuont?^ 


-t VO MO 

M co to vo 

a 




ll 

11 


Park Coll., Park- 
ville, Mo. 

Parker Coll., Win- 
nebago, Minn. 

Parsons College, 
Fairville, la. 

George Peabody 
Col. for Te'hers, 
N'shville,Tenn. 

Penn Coll., Oska- 
loosa, la. 

Pennsylvania Col., 
Gettysburg, Pa. 

Pennsylvania Col. 
for Women, 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Pennsylvania 
Military Coll., 
Chester, Pa. 

Pennsylvania St. 
Coll., State Col- 
lege, Pa. 

Philomath Coll., 
Philomath, Ore. 

Piedmont Coll., 
Demorest, Ga. 

Polytechnic Inst, 
of Brooklyn, 
Brooklyn, N.Y. 



166 






O 



oo 

tH 



•oyh° 






§ oa 



==J ^ "ft "3 



gri 
O cc5 

o w o 

en Ph 



o - 

"3:8 | 

BOf 
Ph 



§5 



"o 2 



►5 ^ — ^ TT3 CJ 



"55U 

p- 






CXI 

o d 



;PPZ <D«Z o oaco. 
I &4 Oh t 



Oh Ph £ 
l67 



S'o 
3 "0=5 ."o g 



Ph Ph Ph # ^ °^ 



■ co — - w 



CO lT CO 

PCS 






o to o 

'SB 

P,T3 o • 

s 





l^oj, 


« v© 10 00 O OO "<* O O O 

V© M M 00 t*» OO'* M 
M Ot M <M MM Ol 


asmoD i^uoprppv 




9sinoD iBuoi^ippv 


u 


iBaiuwg 


NO 

co 



UOpBXBJ, 
pu-e SJ9DmO JO /AVJ 




saopuiod.103 jBdpiunj^; 




suiaiqoij 




•ojj UBJ puB 
spoqtpj^; 3Ap , BisiS9'j 




^U3raUJ3A03 |Bruoi03 




^naraujaAOQ Ayiv& 




S9U03qx F3pn°<I 




M123 9Ap-ej;sjujaipY 




/avj i-euopn;psuo3 


-* 

M 


NWJ UBUIO^J 




AM27 ppj9inrao3 


VO 

CO 


M^q JO S}U9tH 

-9^3 IO 33U3prudsiinf 




SD P!I°d PI J0 M 




XDBcaoidjQ 




a/lvj iBuop-Baj9;ai 


10 OO cs OO 

M O f» W 


5U9uiuj9aoq qsijSug; 




5U9UIUJ9A03 
9Ai;BJT3dUJ03 




9DU9ID§ 
P D PH°<I j^3U9Q 


00 c* vO -«t 

t>- «o M> 

5 ■ * 


I! 

< 
O 


pjdiDianj^ 




]t?do3 puB 9;tj^s 

(q) 


CO 


lT?uoqT?^j 


Tfr 00 vO vO W vo 
10 O CO l^> t^ CO 




Ji 


Reed Coll., Port- 
land, Ore. 

Richmond Col- 
lege, Richmond, 
Va. 

Rio Grande Coll., 
Rio Grande, 
0. 
" Ripon Coll., Ri- 
00 pon, Wis. 

Roanoke Coll., 
Salem. \'a. 

Rock Hill Coll., 
Elliott City, 
Md. 

Rockford Coll., 
Rockford, III. 

Rollins College, 
Winter Park, 
Fla. 

Rose Polytechnic 
Inst., Terre- 
haute, Ind. 

Rutgers College, 
New Bruns- 
wick, N. J. 

Saint Bernard 
Coll., St. Ber- 
nard, Ala. 



o o *■ 



Cr ) 1 



& 






~T3 

11 



< 






i-s.o--' 



•2 * 



►§>i3.23 >^o « a? "o c 9 



^- C L-fciI 62 



43 c 






tn in co 



IM .CJ .Q .as .whh ,Z2 .•— >Z .<Z 

W W W W CO CO CO 



w w w w 

169 



>.SU a 

.x.s gti 

00 CO 





pv>i 


OOOOOvON «* rrVO 00 
fO vooOfOt» Tj-ri-MOO 
CO CO M M H M t» 


ssmoD feuopippv 




ssinoD iBuoi;ippy 


09 


JEUIUJ9S 


vO 
CO 


uoi}exbx 
puB sj9Dggo }° ^7 




suopRiod.103 ]^diDinnj\[ 




suigiqoij 


O 

VO 


•ojj jbj put? 
spoq^9j\[ 9Ap^JSlS97 




;U9tnnJ9AOQ 1T3IU0|03 




;U9raUJ9AOQ AV^d 


vo 
CO 


sguogqj, I^opijoj 


O vo 
vO CO 

<3 


M'B'j 9ApBj^simuipy 




a\^i iBuoi;n;i;sno3 


O 
M 


MB7 nerao^ 




mb^ j^TDJ9rarao3 




MB^ jo s;u9ui 
-9J3 jo 9DU9pnidsunf 




sapHOd PI I0 AV 




Xo^uioidiQ 


O vo 
VO co 


MBq pmoi^rmjuj 


O OO 00 «N 
VO M O t^ 


;n9rauj9AOQ qsqSng; 


VO 
CO 


3U9UIUJ9A03 

9Aj;^jBdtao3 


O 00 
VO M 


3D09IDC; 
JfcDIlIfOJ j^J909Q 


O OO CM 

vo O t~» 




c 
« c 

£ E 
G £ 

< 2 



I^dmunp^ 

'(3) 




vo 


|UD01 putf 3)tf)C 

(q) 




Itjuoht?^ 

(!) 


O OOOOVO "3-vO <v< 
cm vOvOmco loco t-» 




1.1 

JJ 


Scarritt Morris- 
ville Col., Mor- 
risville, Mo. 

Shaw University, 
Raleigh, N. C. 

Shorter College, 
Rome, Ga. 

ShurtlefiF College, 
Alton, 111. 

Simmons College, 
Abilene, Tex. 

Simmons College, 
Boston, Mass. 

Simpson Coll., In- 
dianola, la. 

Sioux Falls Coll., 
Sioux Falk, 
S. Da. 

Smith College, 
Northampton, 
Mass. 

South Dakota St. 
Coll., Brook- 
ings, S. Da. 

Southern Univ., 
Greensboro, Al. 

Southwestern Col- 
lege, Winfield, 
Kan. 



170 



& 00 

oo t>. 
O <N 













uo3 H 




W<3 


aoo 








o 

Ox 






























vO 
CO 








CO 








o 




VO 
CO 








VO 
<3 












<* 








oo 












<N 








vO 




vo 
3*° 










VO 








<* 

VO 




00 






o 

OS 




CN 




o 

CO 




cs 
CO 












Tj- 


VO 
CO 






CO 








CO 










VO 
CO 








NO 

o« 








CO 




VO 
CO 




o 

vo 




vO 
On 




vo 










vO 


CN 






vO 




o 




o 

o 


















vo 

<3 






■* 

vo 


vO 
CO 






vO 








o 

On 


o 

vO 


vO 
CO 








CO 


00 

o 




^S 


o 

On 


o 

VO 




CO 

o 


o 

CO 




00 





£ > c 

•S'S * 

00 



CO 



'So jj 



,2 , c ^d 



> . .> ^S ^ £ | -g 2 






Ir 




i2t 





IWX 


toooo o -* * «* o OOl 

VO C« W ■*■ CS CO 00 <N 
CI CO M CO CO M M 


asinoD rBuopippy 




ssinoD i^noprppy 


n-i U 


jBairaag 




uoijbxbx 
puB sj9Dggo }° ^^T 




suoi)BiodJ03 rBdpiunj^; 




suiaiqojj 
IBopijoj ^aa-Lin3 




OJ^ ibj puB 
spoqpj^; gApBisiSg^; 




;U9OiaJ9A0Q IBIUO[03 


<N O 

*■» vo 


;a9rauj9A03 Xjibj 


VO 
CO 


S9ii09qx papgod 




mb^j 9Ai;Bj;sjurrapy 




MB'j iBnopn;i)sno3 


2 


MWJ nBrao^ 




mb^j jBiDJ9rarao3 


00 c* 


MB^J JO S}U9m 
-9J3 JO 9DU9pilldSlJnf 




SD P!I°d PI IO AY 




XDBraojdiQ 


CI 


mbi iBaopBuj9;ni 


<n in 00 rf 


lU9ranJ9A0Q qsi|3na 




;a9inuj9A03 

9ApBJBdlU03 


l> to CO 


9DU9IDS 
[BDIIIJOJ JBJ9a9Q 


vO <S vo Tf 
O* t» CO to 


§1 

»- a 

I £ 

< o 

O 


[BdiDianp^ 


vO vo 
CO CO 


JBDCrj paB 91B^S 

(q) 




jbuohb^ 

(*) ■ 


rt O csmvOOvoO 
vo vo *-» t^ co vo cO vo 




c 9 

11 


Talladega Col- 
lege, Talladega, 
Ala. 

Tarkio College, 
Tarkio, Mo. 

Taylor Univ., Up- 
land, Ind. 

Teachers College, 
N. Y. City 

Teachers Coll. of 
Indianapolis, 
Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

Temple Univer., 
Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

Tennessee Coll., 
Murfreesboro, 
Tenn. 

Texas Christian 
Univ., Fort 
Worth, Tex. 

Thiel Coll., Green- 
ville, Pa. 

Throop Coll. of 
Technology, 
Pasadena, Cal. 

Transylvania Un., 
Lexington, Ky. 



172 



£ 5. 



•duicQ ; 
•aoq -ooq 



'PV t 






■u 



=: a 
o o 



jy ^ u 



il 



rt £ 









^3 






s* 






go 



tan 



a33'g<. fe-i 



H H H 



PUP 



> ° w 



•s < 



« 4> 

end 



> o >>> o o 



173 





l«*U 


J* 

O 


rj- « *r> 00 w 

OO M Tfr lO O W 
NO ^t CO C» M 1/} 


VO 00 

N vo 

M 


9smoD jBuopippv 




9sinoD ]Buoi;ippy 


-S9TDo S -pni^ M 

H ^39dS'B {,003 


jBattn9s 


-a 


t>- 


00 

o* 

H 


pas si9Dcgo jo m.vj 




snop^joclio^ redpian;p\[ 




sragiqoijj 
ITOpnoj 1091103 


CO 


•OIJ UBJ pUB 

spoq^gj^; 9ApB]siS9 r i 


"* 
"* 


vO 
CO 




^u9ranj9A0Q |mnoio3 


* 
*■ 


vO 
CO 


vO 
CO 


;u9raai9A09 Ayiv& 


3- 


vO vo 
CO CO 

<3 <3 


vO 
CO 


S9uo9qx pspnoj 


CO 

00 


r»- 


<N VO 

t» CO 


MB'j 9Aii^iisioirapy 


5 




Ti- 
to 


m^i rBaoiin}psoo3 


00 
00 


NO Tj- 
CO to 




00 vo 
O CO 


m^i uBrao^ 






CS 


MB1 1^319010303 


vO 


CO O 
O VO 

M CO 


^ 


a\^i jo s;u9oi 
-913 J0 33a3pnjdsnnf 


5 


«* 

to to 


10 t^ 


^PlPd PFOAi 




XDBraojdiQ; 


CO 
CO 


vO vo 
CO CO 


00 


M 


MB7 paopBajg^ai 




Tj- vo vo 
to CO CO 

<3 


rf VO 

10 CO 


3O9aiaj9A0Q qsrjSag; 


to 


3O9OIOJ9A0r) 
9AJ1BJBCIOI03 


4 


■^ <<t Tf M OO rf 

to to to to O *o 

"0 


Tt ^r 
to »o 


9D09I3g 


5 


VO M 

CO to 


to 


c a 
.2 £ 

£ g 

< o 
O 


[T?diDiunj\[ 

"(3) 


CO 
CO 


OO O VO M 

O 0> CO to 
<3 


00 -<* 
O »o 


{13307 P aB 3 WS 

(q) 




to 






00 

00 




CO ^ t CM Tf 

O to to - O to 


00 O 

o> 




i.s 
11 


0" c 

Do 

g^ a 


nati, Cincinnati, 

Ohio 
Univ. of Colorado, 

Boulder, Colo. 
Univ. of Denver, 

Denver, Colo. 
Univ. of Detroit, 

Detroit, Mich. 
Univ. of Florida, 

Gainsville, Fla. 
Univ. of Georgia, 

Athens, Ga. 
Univ. of Idaho, 

Moscow, Ida. 


University of Il- 
linois, Urbana, 
Illinois 

Univ. of Kansas, 
Lawrence, Kan. 

Univ. of Louis- 
ville, Louisville, 
Ky. 



NO «*• o 

VO 00 VO 00 

t^ M 00 M 













to 
























•3S 1°<I of© 
qnQ -anof 




15^ 
PhP-. 




VO 




"§3 


VO 

CO 






















i^ 










O 


VO 




o 

oo 












VO 
CO 






















CO 




















VO 




t>. 






vO 

CO 










vo 






£ 
















vo 






VO 










vo 


oo 
•Si- 
va 


























f» 










£ 


CO 




<* 




** 
« 








vO 
CO 










oo 
o 










vo 


VO 
<3 




vo 
















VO 
CO 
















IO 














vo 




vO 
CO 










VO 










VO 


vO 

o 
















VO 
CO 




vo 






vO 
CO 










LO 
























«* 




VO 










O 




























O 

o» 










vo 


CO 






<* 
vo 












VO 
CO 


vo 


















CO 




















VO 

co 






VO 










vo 


co 
















£ 






CO 




VO 










vo 


00 
<3 






vo 








vO 

CO 






vo 


<* 

VO 




VO 
















VO 


















-* 




VO 










O 

H 


00 


vo 


vo 




"3- 

VO 








£ 




vo 






W 












OO 


vo 




5 


vo 

<3 




Tt 


t^ 


£ 






vO 
CO 




o 

00 
w 










VO 


CO 




vo 




vo 


t*~ 


r^ 




vO 
CO 




VO 
CO 






00 










VO 


CO 


vO 
co 


vO 




vo 












VO 
co 


o 

o 




w 


t^ 








vo 


VO 

Ov 


vO 
CO 


-r 
vo 




vo 


oo 
O 


f" 




3 




<* 
vo 



►J 

•50 



a ^ 

>S >- ^ > * 



.11 bn. *ii^i a «i &? 

175 



J2 rt 

xjOO 

a 

- O rt 

6 






S>3 





P*°X 


vo ** e* «g vO^-OO 
M V? V© 00 *t o oo •<*■ 
M VOMM eor*-H»o 
H 


ssmoD rBuopippv 




asmoD puoqippv 


CL.O o cjcjj u-S S&h 


leuimss 




UOpEXITL 

ptre sj3ocgo jo m&T 




suop12.10d.103 [Bdpnmpj 




sinaiqoij 




'OJJ •J'BjJ pUB 

spoq;9p\[ 3ApB|siSai 


to 


lu3mai3A0Q jmuo]03 




insramsAOQ fLyi^d 


<4> to tO rj- 
*fr <0 «0 M to 


S3ii03qx I^PIPcE 


H 


mb'j SApB-psimmpy 




m^i pnopn^psno^ 


c* O rf 

f» vo m 


MB'j UBtno^; 


N O 

t> vo 


MB'j i^iDisrarao^ 


<N vO OO 
t^ <*} o 


Aveq jo siusra 
-3|3 jo SDusprudsunf 


vO 


SD PH°d PF°AV 




XDBraojdiQ 


rj- rf OO ^ VO 

Tf M M t>. CO 


M'B'j jBaopBajsiaj 


Tt <N N Tt VO 

rj- t>- tJ- vO C5 


insraujSAOQ qsijSag 


<* 

to 


lU3raUJ3AOQ 

3ApBiBdrao3 


<* <n <s O Tj- rr 
rfr t>» *>. vo to m 


pnpgod JBJ3a3o 


O O "♦ o» oo 
0^ vo VO «>» O 


si 


jBdiDiunj^ 


r^ r-» to to 


I^ooq pus 3}Tns 

(q) 


to t>» 


JBUOIIT?^ 

(!) 


CO N N Tt N vo ^r 
O r- r-» to t-» O to 




3.9 

Is 


University # of 
Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania 

University of 
Pittsburg, Pitts- 
burg, Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Univ. of P. R., 
Rio Piedras, 
Porto Rico 

Univ. of Puget 
Sound, Ta- 
coma, Wn. 

University of 

Rochester, 

Rochester, New 

York 
Univ. of So. Cal., 

Los Angeles, 

Cal. 
Univ. of So. Car., 

Columbia, S.Ca. 
Univ. of So. Dak., 

Vermilion, 

S. Da. 






176 






it 



<±>< 



CO t^. 



■*-• c c . 

2 d a a 

00 h * Sa 
° g § . g gTl 

& & & 



-4- M2 




177 



l^ox 



3Sjnoo {^uopippv 



ssinoo iBuopippy 



jemuwg 



nopBXBx 



suoi%viodioj jBdprimp\[ 






•ojj jv^ ptre 
spoipsj^; SAp'ejsiSs'i 



3U3uiui3aoq ]^ino|03 



lasrauiSAOQ ^M 



s3uo3qx F D nn°d 



M127 9Ai;BJ^siuirapy 



avb'j renoi;ii}i;suo3 



m^i irerao^j 



WJ IBIDJ3IHUI03 



amtj jo s;o3iu 
-3jg jo 3DU3pnjdsimf 



SD nn o J PHOAV 



ADBtUOldlQ 



mtt[ iBuopBnj3;ni 



;u3iaaJ3AOQ qsiiSag 



?U9UIUJ9AOQ 
3Ai;BJBdlD03 



3D03ID§ 
JTJDpjIOJ JBJ3a3Q 



c c 

1 1 

E g 

< o 
O 






(q) 






S.l 

1! 



R 




10 


00 


io 




OO 




O 




00 


00 


10 









»o 10 






1=3 a 



c 


<L> (U 


Oft 




3 E3 fr* 


^ 


3 
pq 


p i> t^ 


2 . 




rt "0 rt 


3 • 


d 

- 


>J*i 


a** 


> 


*> 


> 



= o^*->^ . w -D -•£ c g <y >>.2£?o£ 
fct o . - £ 2 & c •-' ^ M " 1 c </> £ 



1 1 ill § ll s If ^ £1 « a I - 1 § s-^ 

> > >>i> > > £ 
178 



Ji 



r- OC 



CO 



O u 



5* «f 



jy ^3 



o 



•SIM 



II 
m rd 

Ho S 



I s 






S ctf 3 O « 



•s^s^l-s, 



=i * -3 9 



'- j 1.-2 S 



3H J££ 33>2 SuS 3£ 2££ : 5£^ SSUO^U 
£ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 

x 79 „ 








I^OX 


00O10 00 « notj- «^t 

Tj- NO 00 O* "^OOlOMTj- 
NO MMM COM NOM 


9sanoD jBuopippv 




asinoo iBoopippy 




luairagg 


CN NO 

t- CO 


uoijbxbx 




suop , BJodJ03 i"Bdpiunj\[ 




saigiqojj 
F*PII d ^U9un3 


00 




oid "™d V™ 
spoqtpj^; gAi^isiSaT 


NO 

CO 


1U9U3UI9A03 PJUOIO3 


Tl- 


;U9UmJ9AOQ A"}!^ 


■^ no ^r 
10 co to 




S9tJ09qx n»rni o <i 


CM 




avb^j 9Ap-Bj^sjmuipy 




mbi i^nopn^r;sno3 





m.vj nBrao^[ 




m^i ]^pj9uirao3 




NO 


MB7 jo s;u9ca 
-9|3 jo 93U9pnjdsiinf 


NO -<fr 

co to 

« 


^m°d PI J0 A\ 




XDTJUIOldjQ 


Tj- NO NO 

to CO co 


MB7 iBuop^nj9^ai 


rf "* NO NO NO M" 
to 10 co co co *0 


}U9uiai9A0Q qsjiSag 


to CO 




}U9UIUI9AOQ 
9ApTJJBdtU03 


Tf O Tt NO 00 

to NO to CO O 


9DU9IDg 
JCDpiJOJ JTJJ9U9Q 


to to ***■ to 


Si 

5> 



jrdiDiunp^; 
"(3) 


rf NO "t 
to co *o 

O <3 


jBOOq put? 9}E}S 

(q) 


10 ^ 




|TJUOntJfy[ 


^f lO O NO NO ^ *fr 

to ^ nO co co to tJ- 

e? J? O JT 




Is 
11 


Western Reserve 
Univ., Cleve- 
land, Ohio 

Westfield College, 
Westfield, 111. 

Westminster Col., 
Fulton, Mo. 

Westminster Col., 
New Wilming- 
ton, Pa. 

Westminster Col., 

, Tehuacana, 
Tex. 

Westminster Col., 
Westminster, 
Colo. 

West Va. Univ., 
Morgantown, 
W. Va. 

W. Va. Wesleyan 
Coll., Buckhan- 
non, W. Va. 

Wheaton Coll., 
Wheaton.Ill. 

Whitman Coll., 
Walla Walla, 
Wn. 

Whittier College, 
Whittier, Cal. 



180 






VO t>- 



.g 53 5 






TO 0> 



b£ 
3 J 



5° 

as. 



£ £ 



la 





U 


o 

B 




B 




a rt = 


o sJ 




iiaU 


SS 


£ 


£ 


£ 





2^5 «j.g 



=iO 












£££££££ 

i8i 



1 


c 
d 




a 


Q 

IS) 


> 


U 




c 










c 


c 


C3 




p 


V 

> 


£H 




w^ 


TO 


K 


c 

TO 


>H 


* 




> 







f;o X 


« 
to 

CI 




00 

o 
o 


asjnoD p3uopippy 








ssjnoD puopippy 






to 

o 

vO 


lvmmzs 






\o 

CO 


001112x12 j, 






00 


suop-BiodJO^ pdiDianp\[ 






OO 


saiaiqoij 






o 

Ov 

CO 


•ojj -ni& put? 

SpOq^9J^ 3ApB|SlS9'J 






I 

M 


}U9inui9AO£) ^moj03 






o 

VO 


iu9raui9A0Q M^d 






o 

00 


sguogqj, p3pH°c[ 






00 
CO 


m^ 3Ap^j;simrapv 






OO 
vO 


Muq puopn^psno^ 






o 

to 


javj uBrao^; 








m^i ppi9rarao3 






0^ 

M 

VO 


mbi jo s;u9ca 
-9jg jo aonoprudsimf 


vO 
CO 


Tf Ti- 
■ Tj" 


OO 
c^ 


SDpipd PHo^\ 






O 

CO 


XDBraojdrQ 




oo r~» 

o o> 


to 
O 

CO 
CO 


M^q lT3UOpBUJ91UI 


lO 


COOO 
M 00 
lO N 

U5 O 


o 

oo 
o> 


au9rani9A0Q qsifSug; 






oo 

vO 


;a9UIUJ9AOQ 

9Ai;Bj^dui03 


to 


vO o 

cOvO 
„■ OO 

o 


vO 

O 
00 

o 


9D09p§ 
I^DpiJOJ JT3J9U9Q 




M O 


CO 
vO 
vO 


c c 

Si 

J> 

< o 

o 


judiDiunjY 






OO 

vO 

VO 


JTJDOq paB 91TJ3S 

(q) 




rovO 


vO 

§ 




°2 
o 


<N 00 O 


oo 
I 




1.1 

il 


York Coll., York, 

Neb. 
Univ. of Wooster, 

Wooster, Ohio 


t/J 

3 

o 

H 


— 

3 

o 
H 

T3 
£3 

a 



182 



o 



1 




H 




fe 




o 




w 




W 




1 


73 


.a 


£ 


XI 


i 

< 


ined. 
com 


ft 


x *-> 




iment com 
lined, 
ibined. 
jovernmen 



1 

1 

<n 
u 

'a 

i 






."3 ° 

eS 

.KCO 

a.2 



a 

-a 



3 3 a 
o o a 

^ M T3 






c3 a M^j . 

111 111" 

S «5 > <-> 5 £ a 

ft rt d (fl tl OOjjl.W'O+J i. t* .-i 



*s 

IS . 

■8*3 



i 

.a 



a « 

i 



"s"3 



■S" 



S^v2u w .2 m |^^d « o 

. Ti . » r /-i <4_i .3 <4-< 3 C i; 1) +J Jj 

^^C O O S u'O « 



vo W 



I 



d.y 



oT3 

o6 M 



a 

O 



5 £3 .23 






o o />- fl ao fl2 «- cJ 5 tn tfi So u .5 « u ?i S u tfl.S g 

!?^wO£Swo;Uh10<OOUOwOwUUOOw^ ' 

° ........ . HJ < 



O 3 OJ3. g 

>» *.»^ s 
&:■§ g © » 



-w o tJ 3 +3 'O P^ O o 

l^s.a.a.a'sjsfi 

' o >>S £30 SSa 

1 



183 



1 84 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

III. Observations and Conclusions. 

i. Inadequate Provisions for Government Instruction. 

One hundred and eleven colleges and universities offer no 
courses in any of the subjects included in the tabulation. It 
may be assumed also that the majority of institutions which 
failed to respond to the inquiries of the committee, 99 in number, 
are to be considered as within this class. In these institutions, 
except for the frequent assurances from presidents and heads 
of other departments that government and politics are ade- 
quately treated under economics, sociology or history there is 
no special consideration whatever given to the subject of po- 
litical science; 224 institutions offer courses totalling less than 
200 hours (i. e., two courses of three hours throughout the year), 
and consequently may be classed as not recognizing political 
science as deserving of a place in the curriculum as a distinct 
department. As a rule the subject in such colleges is combined 
with history, economics or sociology or some other department 
and only a few elementary courses may find place in an already 
over-crowded schedule for one instructor. The first and second 
classes comprise the institutions which give sufficient attention 
to the subject to warrant a separate department, but out of a 
total of 177 schools in this class only 40 separate the department 
of political science from history, economics, sociology, ethics or 
philosophy. In view of these facts it may well be asked whether 
the colleges are equipped to train for citizenship, to prepare 
teachers of government or to prepare for the professions which 
require an intimate knowledge of governmental affairs. The 
demands of an awakened social conscience and the heavy re- 
sponsibilities cast upon the electorate through the spread of 
direct democracy would seem to require greater consideration 
for the group of subjects comprised under government or po- 
litical science than is now given in any but a small percentage 
of colleges and universities. 

A large number of institutions which either offer no courses 






INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 185 

or announce less than 200 hours is made up of women's colleges, 
colleges of mines, agricultural colleges, schools of technology, and 
small denominational colleges, in some instances with less than 
one hundred students in the undergraduate department of arts 
and sciences. Women's colleges, it may be claimed, are not 
likely to have any special demand for instruction in government 
and political affairs, and consequently there are good reasons 
for excluding this group of subjects from the ordinary woman's 
college. However, not a few of the large colleges for women 
have found sufficient interest and enthusiasm in public affairs to 
offer some very thorough courses in political institutions. In 
some notable instances the colleges for women have given a 
recognition to these courses which many of the colleges for men 
might well emulate. There scarcely seems to be any justification 
to-day for the entire omission of courses in government from any 
college for women which has an undergraduate department of 
collegiate grade. There are many indications that courses in 
political science have rightfully made their way into the colleges 
for women, and the time is apparently not far distant when those 
in charge of colleges of this type will give matters relating to 
government much greater consideration. 

Colleges of mines, agricultural colleges, and schools of tech- 
nology form a group under which the courses offered must be 
scientific and practical. These schools are primarily designed to 
prepare for one of the professions or vocations, and there seems 
to be neither time nor occasion to give attention to such an 
impractical matter as government. If one may judge from the 
utter neglect of the study of political affairs in many such schools 
it appears that there is at present no recognition of the fact that 
the incipient miner, farmer or engineer may be called upon to 
take an interest in the affairs of his country. Nor does there 
seem to be any thought that it might be worth while to learn 
of the responsibilities and duties of social beings as well as of 
ways and means to earn a livelihood. That the miner, the 



186 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

farmer and the engineer should receive training along the 
line of their duties and responsibilities as social beings and 
citizens seems scarcely less imperative than that they should 
be trained as efficient producers. There is ample evidence 
that the efficient producer without a social conscience has 
worked much havoc and injury. If society is to be protected 
and its best interests conserved, the scientific, industrial, and 
so-called practical schools must find both time and oppor- 
tunity to give instruction in economics, sociology and political 
science. Both economics and sociology have slowly made their 
way into many of the technical and vocational schools. 
A few technical schools and agricultural colleges have intro- 
duced the important elementary courses in government, and 
there is no indication that the standard of work in technology 
has suffered particularly because the curriculum has been en- 
riched by courses in political and social affairs. A statement 
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology indicates the 
type of instruction offered in one of the largest technical 
schools. 

For admission and for graduation, a considerable amount of non- 
professional training is provided for, on the theory that the institution 
is equipping its graduates for citizenship as well as for engineering, 
chemistry, and architecture. 

So far as government is concerned, the countries taken up are the 
United States, and typical leading European forms, especially Eng- 
land, France, and Germany, with slight attention to Switzerland. 
The emphasis is laid upon government; the history side is mainly 
directed to tracing the origin and development of existing institutions. 
So much is required of all. Furthermore, as already mentioned, there 
are third-year electives, in which "students are allowed to exercise 
entire freedom of choice, " though as a matter of fact more than one- 
half of the class elect one or more of the subjects in the field of govern- 
ment. These courses, at present, are international law, municipal 
government, and current public problems. 1 

1 Furnished by Professor C. F. A. Currier, Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 187 

It remains to be seen whether society as organized in its legis- 
latures, courts and administrative agencies will become a matter 
of sufficient significance to be given some consideration in all of 
the technical schools and may be deemed worthy of more atten- 
tion by that group of institutions which depend almost entirely 
upon the state for existence. 

The small denominational schools frequently do not have 
large enough faculties or enough students in the collegiate de- 
partment to offer courses in political science. For schools of 
this sort the students are fortunate to get a mere introduction 
to the study of public affairs in the departments of history and 
economics or perchance in the department of philosophy. Many 
colleges would find it neither advisable nor practicable to es- 
tablish a separate department in political science. But none 
can afford to neglect the duty of providing adequate instruction 
in the elementary principles and practice of government. An 
instructor in one of the small denominational schools makes the 
apology that since he is obliged to teach " nearly all of the his- 
tory, the economics, and much of the Bible work" he can offer 
only one brief course in political science. For this situation there 
seems to be no remedy other than the fostering of a public senti- 
ment which will require that these institutions cease pretending 
to offer four years of college work or that they raise their stand- 
ard by such increase of endowment as will provide for a larger 
faculty and better facilities for advanced instruction. 

2. The Function of College Instruction. 

Departments of Political Science are called upon to perform 
services of three distinct types: (1) to train for citizenship; (2) 
to prepare for professions, such as the law, journalism, teaching 
and the public service; (3) to train experts and to prepare spe- 
cialists for government positions. For the universities a fourth 
group might be added including courses primarily intended to 
train for research work. Universities alone can properly plan 



188 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

to prepare government experts, who in many instances must 
receive specialized instruction such as the departments of polit- 
ical science can offer only in part. Courses designed to prepare 
for research must also be left largely, if not entirely, with the 
universities. 

The function of college instruction in politics is to train for 
citizenship as well as to train for the professions. In performing 
this function colleges too frequently confine attention almost 
exclusively to the theories of the origin of the state and the 
nature of law and sovereignty, in fact, to a consideration of 
abstract notions and principles which find scant place in the 
actual operation of governmental affairs. Much of what is 
comprehended in these abstract discussions is based upon 
theories of law and jurisprudence which modern publicists are 
prone to condemn. However, it is very gratifying to find a 
marked increase in the attention to Staatslehre, to state-theory 
in contrast with state-practice. The history of political ideas, 
as well as wrangling over such terms as sovereignty, liberty and 
law, ought to be encouraged rather than discouraged. But 
there are indications that political science, in some quarters 
at least, has been too strictly confined to theories about civil 
society and too little concerned with political affairs as they are. 
Students of politics like those of other fields have been inclined 
to philosophize and work out abstract principles rather .than to 
search laboriously the records and activities of society in its 
myriad and complex operations. It is not proposed that less 
attention be given to political theory for this subject eminently 
deserves the emphasis given it, as a rule, in college courses, but 
it is rather proposed that the work in political science be ex- 
panded so as to complement the theory and the abstract discus- 
sions with fuller consideration of the actual working of polit- 
ical institutions. 

Political science is scarcely old enough, particularly as pursued 
in the United States, to attain to the standard of a well developed 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 189 

science. The catalogues of our larger universities prior to 1890 
seldom recognized political science as a department but an- 
nounced a few courses in government under the division of his- 
tory or of political economy. It is slightly more than thirty 
years ago that the first schools of political science were opened. 
In view of the short time the study of government has re- 
ceived any attention or recognition from college authorities 
the present status of the subject and the rapid expansion 
of courses in the higher institutions is nothing short of re- 
markable. 

The returns from the colleges indicate several significant 
facts, the most striking, perhaps, being an earnest desire on the 
part of teachers to inaugurate courses in political science where 
such courses are not given and to enlarge the work where such 
instruction is now provided. In letters accompanying some of 
the reports this fact was particularly emphasized and in several 
instances presidents of institutions took occasion to make it 
clear that efforts were being made to offer courses in political 
science or to enlarge or improve those already offered. During 
the years that the committee has been at work a considerable 
number of institutions have increased the quota of hours devoted 
to the subject whereas comparatively a very few have reduced 
the hours formerly scheduled. There is no doubt that there is 
a widespread and growing sentiment among teachers, college 
authorities, and, in fact, the public generally, that, of all things, 
the student should have, on leaving college, a knowledge of his 
country's political institutions, their history and their actual 
operation. 

But much remains to be accomplished to give instruction in 
government a rightful place in many institutions which now 
ignore the subject entirely. The character of some instruction 
that passes under the title needs to be considerably improved to 
be worthy of more consideration by men of affairs. And some 
readjustments of emphasis and proportions must be made in 



190 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

political science to keep pace with the rapid strides in other 
branches within the general group of social sciences. 

3. Attendance in Courses. 
Institutions reporting — 150 * 







Total 




Subject 


Institutions 


Enrollment 


Average 


American Government 


120 


6,107 


5i- 


Comparative Government 


67 


2,75o 


41 


General Political Science 


45 


992 


22 


International Law 


55 


1,422 


26- 


Jurisprudence 


22 


753 


34 


Constitutional Law 


29 


1,091 


38- 


Commercial Law 


9 


620 


69 


Political Theories 


11 


156 


14 


Municipal Government 


38 


1,163 


3i- 


Party Government 


15 


473 


3i 


State Government 


3 


170 


37 



15,697 

Judging by the number of institutions reporting courses in 
American government and the high average of the classes it 
appears that this subject is growing in favor as the basic ele- 
mentary course in the department. Comparative government 
shares with American government in favor as an elementary 
course although less than one-third as many students in a few 
more than half the number of institutions are registered in this 
course. The small colleges frequently give an elementary course 
in political theory, which accounts chiefly for the total of 992 
students enrolled in 45 institutions in the subject designated 
as general political science. Courses in political theory are not 
as popular with instructors or with students as formerly. When 
political science was first introduced into the college curriculum 
the work was almost always begun with a course in political 

1 The majority of schools which submitted reports on attendance were 
large universities or old and well endowed colleges. 






INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 191 

theory. Now the tendency is to offer instead practical courses 
in American government, comparative government or municipal 
government. But in most of these courses some attention is 
given to political theory. Advanced courses in political theory 
are given as a rule in the universities to small groups of graduate 
and undergraduate students. Jurisprudence, constitutional law 
and commercial law are offered chiefly in the universities and 
usually to large classes. 

A subject gaining in popularity and interest is that of munici- 
pal government, now offered in many colleges and reaching more 
than a thousand students in 38 institutions. The growing em- 
phasis upon the study of functions and government in operation 
will no doubt aid in giving greater prominence to this course. 
International law ranks third as to number of institutions offer- 
ing the subject, but the total of 1,422 students enrolled in 55 
schools indicates that with but few exceptions the subject is 
given to comparatively small classes. The course is offered 
frequently in alternate years and is as a rule elective with the 
result that " a relatively small percentage of the students actually 
elect international law as a subject of study." l According to 
the report of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 
in 144 institutions in which international law was taught in 
1911-12 only 3,646 students were enrolled or only 3 / 9 per cent 
of the students which were enrolled in those institutions. 2 

The total enrollment in eleven subjects, 15,697 in the under- 
graduate courses of 150 colleges and universities, indicates that 
political science is appealing to large groups of students. This 
enrollment is particularly gratifying because of the fact that 
courses in the department are almost invariably elective, and 
as a rule they are given only to advanced students. The sub- 

1 Report on the teaching of international law in the educational institu- 
tions of the United States prepared by the Carnegie Endowment for Inter- 
national Peace, April 18, 1913, p. 6. 

2 Ibid., p. 29. This report should be consulted for an exhaustive report 
on the teaching of international law. 



192 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

jects are usually offered in the sophomore, junior and senior 
years and frequently are open only to juniors and seniors. But 
there are many evidences to lead to the conclusion that these 
subjects have not been given the consideration due them. When 
institutions with more than one thousand students enroll less 
than twenty in government courses and these are public institu- 
tions supported largely by state funds, it leads to the inquiry 
whether something in the nature of a civic awakening in our ed- 
ucational institutions is not in order. Furthermore, the schools 
reporting constitute a majority of those having strong and well 
planned courses in political science, and the results would be far 
less satisfactory if statistics were secured from all of the colleges. 
Is it not time that educators at least ask the question whether 
it is desirable that the great majority of college graduates leave 
their institutions without so much as completing a single course 
of study devoted to their own political institutions or those 
of foreign countries? 

4. Text-books. 

Courses in political science have been made possible in small 
institutions and have been improved in large institutions by the 
recent appearance of good text-books. The lines on which more 
adequate and thorough guides should be prepared are state 
and local government and modern European governments. A 
majority of works now in use covering European institutions 
give most attention to political and constitutional history, with 
the result that the analysis of present day political customs and 
practices necessarily suffers. Moreover, texts almost invariably 
slight the administrative phase of government and the judicial 
department. In these as well as in other lines there will remain 
gaps which for many instructors cannot be filled until better 
texts and practical guides are prepared. For courses in elements 
of law or jurisprudence there is no good text adapted for use in 
college classes. There are those who question the advisability 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 193 

of attempting to teach this subject to college students, and it 
certainly is open to question whether much that passes as juris- 
prudence is not either beyond the comprehension of the under- 
graduate or made up of material which more properly belongs 
to philosophy or ethics. The course in elements of law or juris- 
prudence is one of the problems of the college department of 
political science. Far too little emphasis is given in courses for 
undergraduates to the fact that government is a legal mechanism, 
and very often no attempt is made to connect up the study of 
political affairs with legal foundations. It is quite clear that 
some work should be given by way of an introductory study to 
law. What should be the content of this course, how and to 
whom it should be taught, are questions which are far from any 
satisfactory answer. 

Very few courses are given in the small colleges which are not 
based primarily on texts, and the consensus of opinion among 
instructors is that this is the best method of conducting classes. 
As a rule the course in political science consists of a close study 
of one or two texts with some library work and class discussion 
upon the basis of reports made by students. In a few institutions 
the texts are of high school grade, but for the most part they are 
standard college works. One result of the reliance on text-books 
is inadequate attention to local government, since the authors 
deal very briefly with this field and the average instructor has 
very little time or inclination to develop a course without a text. 

5. Methods of Instruction. 

Methods of instruction in the universities vary considerably 
according to the size of the institution and the number in the 
class. In the preliminary courses, as a general rule, the system 
of informal lectures is combined with reports and quizzes. The 
case book plan is extensively employed in the courses in public 
and business law. In all the advanced courses the students are 
obliged to carry on independent work under the supervision of 



194 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

the instructor. The seminar has been found most successful in 
developing a keen interest among seniors and graduate students 
in many of the problems of politics. 

In the elementary courses with large classes the following 
methods are typical of replies to the committee's inquiry: 

Brown University: Lectures, readings assigned and papers. 

Columbia University: Lectures, papers and readings. 

Grinnell College: Lecture and text-book method combined with 
reports. 

New York University: Informal lectures, recitations, discussions 
and papers. 

Princeton University: Lectures, extensive readings and reports; 
conferences with small groups of students. 

University of California: Lectures, papers and readings. 

University of Nebraska: Lectures, recitations, papers and sectional 
conferences. 

Williams College: Lectures, oral and written recitations, class- 
room discussions, readings on special topics. 

Where classes are small and the work offered is more elemen- 
tary it is customary to rely largely on text-books and recitations 
with a limited amount of special readings and occasional class 
reports. Frequently the number of class hours allotted to such 
subjects as American government, comparative government, 
and introductory political science are so few that it is quite im- 
possible to do justice to a good text-book, let alone to attempt 
extensive readings. One of the imperative needs for the improve- 
ment of instruction in these subjects is to increase the time allot- 
ment so that more thorough and intensive work can be done. 

A large number of institutions are offering courses in current 
problems and political issues. As a part of these courses lectures 
are frequently given by men prominent in public life. Cornell 
University has recently established such a course with the prime 
purpose of training for citizenship. The lectures are given by 
men of affairs and are designed to create a vital interest in the 
duties and responsibilities of citizens. The course proved to be 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 195 

such a success that it is to be continued and placed on a perma- 
nent basis. 

6. Types of Courses. 

Four types of courses are comprised within the range of de- 
partments of political science. The first of these to be developed 
and now offered in most institutions giving instruction in political 
science is one of a descriptive character dealing with the organi- 
zation and operation of American and European governments. 
In some of these courses ancient and modern governments are 
considered first and the preliminary work is made the basis for 
a study of the American system of government. The history 
of modern forms of government and their present organization, 
chiefly from the constitutional point of view, is the chief object 
of such courses. Second, there is a type of course which first 
presents the theory of the state (Allgemeine Staatslehre) and 
deals with the conception of the state, its basis, the form of its 
constitution, and sovereignty. In these courses the considera- 
tion of theories and political principles is followed by a compara- 
tive study of the departments of government, executive, legisla- 
tive, judicial, and by an analysis of the ends and aims of the 
state. The philosophy and underlying principles of the state 
are presented as well as some notion of the forms of organiza- 
tion. A third kind of course is one which is primarily confined 
to a study of functions rather than organization. Such courses, 
although involving comparative features, are more often frankly 
confined to a study of one system of government, and matters 
of form and organization of public authority are subordinated 
to that of functional activities. 

A fourth type of course comprises the work offered in consti- 
tutional law, administrative law, international law, commercial 
law, Roman law, elements of law and jurisprudence. These 
courses mark the dividing line where the technical phases of 
law merge into the realm of public policy, ethics and custom, 



196 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

and thus constitute a common vicinage in which the departments 
of law and political science are equally interested and involved. 
In connection with these courses the question arises whether 
they should not be offered primarily as law courses to which 
advanced undergraduates might be admitted instead of being 
offered under departments of political science and admitting 
law students. Each arrangement has some distinct advantages 
in its favor, but there is no indication of any uniformity in prac- 
tice, with the result that the relation between departments of 
political science and departments of law is one of the difficult 
problems of university instruction in government and law. It 
seems that in some of these subjects it will be necessary and ad- 
visable to offer courses both in the law school and in the depart- 
ment of political science and that others should be offered in only 
one department with an arrangement for admission of qualified 
students from the other. The matter deserves careful considera- 
tion and involves a plan of adjustment which should receive 
early attention by the Political Science Association and the 
Association of American Law Schools. 

7. Suggestions for the Improvement of Instruction. 

In one of the questionnaires distributed by the committee 
instructors were asked to give suggestions as to ways and 
methods by which instruction in government might be improved. 
Among the suggestions commonly urged were the following: 

1. That the department of political science be separated from 
other departments of instruction and not treated as a mere 
appendage to history or economics. 

2. That the Political Science Review be made more definitely 
a medium of information to keep teachers abreast of important 
changes in the realm of politics. 

3. That a full year be given to the study of American govern- 
ment. 

4. That departments establish research bureaus and aim to 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 197 

keep in touch with government in actual operation in townships, 
cities, counties, state and nation, and that students be trained 
to study definite problems. 

5. That more frequent use be made of newspapers and peri- 
odicals for illustrations of the dynamics of government. 

6. That texts be prepared which give more emphasis to func- 
tions and statistics and deal more fully with state and local gov- 
ernment. Good outlines should also be prepared with sugges- 
tions for gathering and using concrete material, and for doing 
observational and practical work. 

7. That laboratory work and the assignment of practical 
problems for student reports should be more largely used by all 
instructors in political science. 

8. That better provision be made for the training of teachers 
in this subject. 

9. That much could be gained by standardizing many of the 
courses and grading them as elementary, advanced and gradu- 
ate in character. The Association should prepare a program of 
study and text writers should conform to this program instead 
of allowing the scope and arrangement of courses to be largely 
determined by the most popular text writers. 

10. That civics in secondary schools should be placed on a 
better basis and broadened so as to include economics and so- 
ciology. 

At a conference arranged by Professor Horack and held at 
Iowa City in July, 1914, the following conclusions were adopted: 

1. The conference agreed that there ought to be a funda- 
mental introductory course — a course relating to human origins 
and evolution was favored. 

2. It was likewise the opinion of the conference that a course 
in history as history is ordinarily taught would not serve as an 
adequate introduction to political science. 

3. The conference agreed that departments of political science 
should teach American constitutional law and that the term 



198 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

constitutional as applied to courses in American history had 
better be dropped altogether. 

4. The conference was agreed that courses in political science 
should be open to Freshmen. 

5. It was also agreed that a course in American Government, 
if made the basic course, should be illuminated by illustrations 
drawn from contemporary politics and comparative govern- 
ment. 

IV. Recommendations for the Improvement of College In- 
struction. 

In view of the difficulties involved in making recommendations 
which may be applied to the great variety of conditions to be 
met in the many colleges of the United States, the committee 
found considerable difficulty in carrying out the second object 
of its appointment — that of suggesting means for enlarging 
and improving instruction. It is of course quite evident that 
no standard plan of courses and no uniform method of instruc- 
tion can be devised for the many types of colleges and univer- 
sities. That something like a standard type of course has been 
worked out for certain groups of universities and colleges is, 
however, plainly evident. The committee certainly disclaims 
any intention to prescribe a standard plan of courses in political 
science. A few recommendations, however, are offered, which 
are intended primarily to afford guidance to the smaller colleges 
and to those institutions in which government is merely begin- 
ning to receive adequate attention. 

It is well to emphasize at this point that the committee has 
aimed in all of its conclusions to gather and formulate the con- 
sensus of opinion among those who are vitally interested in the 
improvement of political science instruction. Every effort has 
been made through questionnaires, correspondence and other 
available avenues of information to gather opinions and to 
present the mature judgment of those qualified to speak from 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 199 

experience. No pains have been spared to eliminate personal 
views and predilections and to present in such conclusions as 
are offered the clearly formulated opinion of representative 
groups of instructors. 

Definition of Political Science. 

For the purpose of its report the committee considered the 
following courses as comprising, in the main, the scope of politi- 
cal science: 

A. Descriptive and historical. 

1. American government. 

a. National, 

b. State and local. 

c. Municipal. 

2. Comparative government. 

3. Party government. 

4. Colonial government. 

5. Diplomacy. 

B. Theoretic. 

1. General political science. 

2. Political theories and history of political literature. 

C. Legal. 

1. Constitutional law. 

2. International law. 

3. Elements of law and jurisprudence. 

4. Commercial law. 

D. Advanced courses. 

1. Constitutional relations. 

2. Legislation and legislative procedure. 

3. Public administration and administrative methods. 

4. Foreign relations. 

5. Theory. 

6. Law. 1 

1 In the preparation of this table the committee is specially indebted to 
Professors Schaper of the University of Minnesota and Freund of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago for suggestions. 



200 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

At the outset of its investigations the committee was informed 
on good authority that there is no such thing as political science, 
and as the work of examining college catalogues progressed the 
truth of this observation became painfully apparent. Many 
colleges and a few universities seem disposed to use the term in 
designating the group of courses offered in economics and so- 
ciology, with little or no attention given to the courses outlined 
above. In other instances political science is used in a very 
comprehensive sense, covering courses offered in history, eco- 
nomics, politics, public law and sociology. With the exception 
of a tendency toward uniformity in the courses announced by 
a few colleges and the larger universities there is a marked lack 
of agreement as to the meaning of the term political science. 
An illustration of this is shown where an institution with courses 
in political science, as defined by the committee, offers these 
courses under the heading public law and administration and 
uses the term political science to designate work given in eco- 
nomics and sociology. A standard and acceptable definition of 
political science seems difficult to formulate. But however diffi- 
cult it may be to define the term it is fundamental at the out- 
set that there be an agreement as to what courses are compre- 
hended within the field. A more definite agreement as to what 
constitutes political science, and a more aggressive insistence on 
the necessity of distinguishing these courses from other groups, 
seem to be the prerequisite to secure recognition for the subject 
as worthy of a place in the colleges as a distinct department. 

i. That courses in political science be separated from courses 
in history, economics and sociology. 

In approximately 300 institutions, the following results were 
obtained regarding the relation of political science to other 
subjects: 

Separate department of political science 38 

Combined with history 89 

Combined with economics 22 






INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 201 

Combined with sociology 4 

Combined with history and economics 48 

Combined with economics and sociology 45 

Combined with economics, history and sociology 21 

Combined with philosophy 3 

Combined with economics, history and philosophy 3 

Combined with economics, history and English 4 

Combined with economics and English 1 

Combined with Latin 1 

History, political science, and director of athletics 2 

Combinations such as the following were made in some of the 
smaller institutions, the department including one or more 
courses in political science: history, civics, physical and moral 
science; English Bible, philosophy, pedagogy, sociology and evi- 
dences of Christianity; economics, sociology, international law 
and Bible; exegesis, history and civics; political science, eco- 
nomics, philosophy and psychology; education, philosophy, re- 
ligion and social science. 

It is apparent from this table that very few instructors in po- 
litical science give their entire time and attention to the subject. 
Consequently the great majority of teachers are obliged to de- 
vote the major portion of their energies to another subject and 
to grant only an incidental interest and emphasis to courses in 
government. Some exceedingly valuable courses are offered 
under this plan and there are some advantages in the point of 
view that comes from the necessity of keeping in close touch 
with more than one field. But recognizing that when a man 
offers courses in history and economics he is not thereby dis- 
qualified for the giving of political science instruction, and mak- 
ing due allowance for the advantage that comes from the survey 
of other fields, it is undoubtedly true that political science in- 
struction will not be placed on a plane to be compared with that 
of other departments until colleges give that consideration to 
the field which will demand the full time and energy of one man, 
at least. The small colleges can only set up this standard as a 



202 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

goal toward which to lay plans. But an increasing number of 
colleges are not only providing for courses which require the 
time of one instructor, but, as in the case of history, economics 
and other departments, they are providing additional instructors 
to take care of the increase in student enrollment and to offer 
courses for which there is an evident need. 

Furthermore, the arrangement to combine political science 
with other departments requires that an instructor who has 
received special training almost entirely in another field must 
prepare courses along a line in which he has had no particular 
preparation. As a consequence much of so-called political science 
is either political history or the economic foundations of govern- 
ment. Both of these subjects are important and it is right that 
much attention be given to them, but political science instruc- 
tion almost invariably suffers when offered by one whose primary 
interest and preparation are essentially in another field. The 
committee does not wish to be misunderstood on this point. 
They regard it as eminently desirable and necessary that there 
be full and frank cooperation among the departments of history, 
economics, sociology and political science. What is desired in 
the recommendation is more especially that the courses in 
political science be organized as a distinct group constituting 
a department, and that an effort be made to provide that they be 
offered by an instructor whose interest and training specially 
qualify him for work in this field. 

It is a pleasure to report that a marked tendency in this 
direction is noticeable among the larger colleges and universities, 
and it is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when polit- 
ical science will have a recognized place and a reputable stand- 
ing alongside of older subjects in the college curriculum. 

There is a justifiable revolt against the seemingly endless 
growth of departments and the sometimes unwarranted tendency 
to add highly technical and advanced courses in a department. 
But if there are any good reasons for not according an independ- 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 203 

ent status to courses in government and law these reasons have 
not been forthcoming. That those whose business it is to teach 
political science almost invariably favor the expansion of their 
departments is only to be expected. The encouraging thing is 
that men of affairs in business and government, as well as those 
in other avenues of life, join with the specialists in political 
science in urging upon administrative authorities the necessity 
of more and better courses of instruction in government. 

Fortunately the time has passed when the devotees of this 
branch of learning must needs beg for scant courtesies at the 
hands of those who guard the avenues of intellectual advance. 
The liberalizing culture of the study of political literature and 
public affairs, as well as the service rendered by departments of 
government, have not only restored the science of politics to 
its former place but have also called forth new avenues of growth, 
new fields of endeavor. A prestige which will not long be un- 
noticed in any school of learning which values its function as an 
educative force in a democracy bids fair to place the study of 
government on a firm footing as an indispensable feature of 
every college curriculum. 

2. That a full year's course in American government be given 
as the basic course for undergraduates and that whenever practicable 
some illustrative material and suggestive comparisons with foreign 
governments be presented. 

A summary of attendance in courses in 150 institutions shows 
that American government is far in the lead as a basis for ad- 
vanced work in the department. Comparative government, 
introductory courses in political science and international law 
are the other subjects which are used to introduce students to 
subsequent work. But the three of these as offered in intro- 
ductory courses are not selected in as many institutions as 
American government and are given to a considerably smaller 
number of students. It may be taken therefore as rather clearly 
determined that some form of instruction in American govern- 



204 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

ment shall be the basic course. This course is usually elective 
and is open to students of sophomore grade. 

A matter which is receiving some attention is whether this or 
another course in government ought to be open to freshmen. 
While a few schools have admitted freshmen to the course and 
while there are some strong reasons in favor of this practice the 
prevailing sentiment for the present, at least, favors the require- 
ment of a year's work in college as a prerequisite. 

The present standard of instruction could of course be changed 
so as to adapt the material and methods to meet the needs of 
freshmen. But in view of the fact that most of the large high 
schools are now giving a half year or a year to this subject on 
somewhat the same plan as would be necessary in a first year 
college course, it seems better from the standpoint of the student 
as well as of the department to defer the introductory course 
until the second collegiate year. In states where but few stu- 
dents have an opportunity to pursue the study of civics in 
high schools or where the instruction is of the formal or perfunc- 
tory kind there is more cogency to the argument in favor of a 
freshman course. 

When instruction in government begins in the sophomore 
year the question arises w T hether any course shall be made a 
prerequisite for the election of the subject or whether a certain 
number of credits alone shall be sufficient. The general rule does 
not favor any prerequisite. Some institutions, however, require 
the selection of a course in history, whereas others strongly advise 
the taking of a preliminary course in this subject. A few colleges 
are offering to freshmen with a fair degree of success an intro- 
ductory course in the social sciences — a kind of gateway course 
to economics, sociology and political science. No satisfactory 
text or handbook for this type of course has yet been prepared. 
In fact it is doubtful whether such a text is within the limits 
of practicability on account of the diversity of fields and the 
difficulty of condensing the underlying principles of any one of 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 205 

the above subjects. For the present such a course depends too 
much upon the individual predilections of the instructor and is 
likely to comprehend an effervescence of principles which fails 
to meet the approval of any of the three departments concerned. 

The most noteworthy objection to the present arrangement 
and one that has influential advocates is that only a small per- 
centage of the student body can elect this course under the 
conditions which prevail in the selection of subjects, and that 
the majority of those who do choose the course never have an 
opportunity to continue the study of government. Consequently 
it follows that of the small percentage of those who strive to 
gain some knowledge of political affairs only a minor portion 
ever go far enough to get any knowledge of foreign governments. 
Hence the present system is designed to foster an inordinate 
provincialism which has been one of the banes of our national 
life. If the citizen-to-be has an opportunity to take but one 
year's work in government it is thought by many that this one 
course should provide instruction in comparative government 
to supply a broader basis of information than would the study 
of American government alone. As the study of government 
is introduced in the grades and a thorough and effective course 
is offered in the high school the committee is inclined to the opin- 
ion that it will become increasingly practicable to introduce the 
comparative method in introductory courses. 

The information available to the committee sheds very little 
light on the sequence of courses in different institutions. In 
fact, it is doubtful whether anything like a regular sequence of 
courses is followed in directing the election of subjects in the 
department. As a rule all of the courses are elective and fre- 
quently are open only to juniors and seniors. In a few instances 
one course is prescribed and usually one of the courses is made a 
prerequisite to the election of subsequent work. American gov- 
ernment, general political science, and comparative government 
are the courses which are usually prescribed or are required as 



206 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

prerequisite for the election of advanced work. It is believed in 
some quarters that the basic course should be in the field of gen- 
eral political science; i. e., a study of Staatslehre, in others the 
comparative study of European systems, and in others that the 
introduction to political science should come through careful 
analysis of the American system. 

The committee, however, recommends that American govern- 
ment be taken as the basis for the introductory course because it 
is convinced that there is an imperative need for a more thorough 
study of American institutions, because the opportunity for 
this study is not now offered in any but a few of the best second- 
ary schools, and because it is exceedingly important that the 
attention of an undergraduate be directed early in his course 
to a vital personal interest in his own government, national, 
state, and local. Instruction in political science is rarely given 
until the second or third year of the college work, and thus 
unless American government is selected for the first course only 
a small percentage of students receive encouragement and 
direction in the study of political affairs with which they will 
constantly be expected to deal in their ordinary relations as 
citizens. But the committee believes that this study of Ameri- 
can government can be distinctly vitalized by the introduction 
of such comparisons with European practices and forms as will 
strengthen the force of criticisms of our present weaknesses, and 
will supply the student with a broader basis of philosophical 
conclusions as to constitutional development and administrative 
practices. 

The committee is of the opinion that, despite the very marked 
increase of courses in American government within the past 
few years, one of the immediate needs is the further extension 
and enlargement of these courses. In only a few institutions is 
enough time given to the subject to permit anything more than 
the most cursory survey of the various features of the govern- 
ment, and almost invariably state and local government suffer 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 207 

in the cutting process which is necessary. About seventy insti- 
tutions only give courses in which state and local government 
are the basis of special study. In order that state and local 
government shall be given more consideration, and in order that 
judicial procedure and administrative methods shall receive 
more than passing notice, it is absolutely necessary that the 
time allotted to American government be increased. Nothing 
short of a full year of at least three hours a week gives the neces- 
sary time and opportunity to do anything like full justice to 
the national, state and local units. 

There is a great diversity of opinion and practice with respect 
to the elementary courses now offered. In order to show the 
variety of conditions which prevails a brief statement as to the 
content and method pursued in the beginning course in some 
representative colleges and universities is given. 

Amherst College 

The elementary course in political science in Amherst College is a 
course in American government running throughout the year, $6 
weeks, three hours each week. As text-books we use Beard's " Amer- 
ican Government and Politics/ ' and Young's u The New American 
Government and Its Work," together with extensive collateral read- 
ing, sources, cases, etc. We give this course as the first course in the 
department because we consider it the most valuable for those men 
who take no further courses in political science, and because a 
thorough knowledge of our own governmental system serves as a 
good basis for a comparative study of governments in other states or 
for an intensive study of a more specialized field in government. The 
chief difficulty that confronts us is the need for a knowledge of the 
elements of political theory in order to discuss some phases of the 
American federal system, constitutional law, and court decisions. 
From this point of view a general course in political science is useful. 
We try to remedy this by giving in the freshman year a general 
course introductory to history, political science, economics, and 
ethics. In this course the nature of the social sciences, their re- 
lations, their fundamental concepts and problems are pointed out. 1 

1 Furnished by R. G. Gettell. 



208 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Dartmouth College 

The elementary course in political science at Dartmouth College is 
organized primarily for training in intelligent and effective citizenship. 
The course covers a period of one year and is open to seniors and 
juniors, and to sophomores who have completed in college one year's 
work of history. 

The work of the course includes a study of the historical origins of 
political institutions; a brief study of English political institutions; 
and a detailed study of American government, in its constitutional, 
administrative and political aspects. To the historical study of 
political institutions the first six weeks of the year is devoted, this 
time being divided about equally between the abstract study of 
political principles and the concrete study of English government. 
In this part of the course, Leacock's " Elements of Political Science " 
is used and Lowell's " Government of England.'' 

The remainder of the time of the first semester is assigned to the 
study of the American federal government. The text-book used is 
Beard's " American Government and Politics " with outside readings, 
in Beard's " Readings in American Government and Politics " and 
in Young's " The New American Government and Its Work." As in- 
dicated by the text-books, attention is given to actual administrative 
problems as well as to constitutional questions. 

The second semester of the year's work embraces a study of state 
government with detailed accounts of legislative and administrative 
methods in different states; a survey of the history of political parties 
and an examination into the problems created by such organizations; 
a discussion of citizenship and a study of methods for making public 
opinion effective in a republican government. 

Such a course, it is believed, gives the student something of an 
appreciation of social institutions as a background for constructive 
thinking upon present political issues. Of no slight importance in 
the success of the course is the fact that the method of treatment 
tends to the development of a steadily increasing interest on the part 
of the student, throughout the year. 1 

Grinnell College 

The basic course in political science at Grinnell College bears the 
name " Comparative Free Government." This is a three-hour course 
throughout the year. It is designed not only to give information con- 
1 Furnished by F. A. Updyke. 









INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 209 

cerning certain governments, but also to acquaint the student with 
the institutions and processes by which democracy in government is 
being attained in leading states. 

The first semester is devoted to a rather detailed study of the gov- 
ernment of the United States, national and state. The point of 
view is emphatically that of the present, the actual working of the 
government, but the attempt is made to have the student see clearly 
what the formal constitutional arrangement calls for; what the 
founders of the government had in mind; in what ways the govern- 
ment in operation differs from what was intended; and what present 
tendencies suggest for the future. Emphasis is placed upon funda- 
mental principles and adjustments, and a broad foundation laid for 
comparison with other governments. 

The second semester is given to a study of the governments of 
England, France, Germany, Switzerland, and selected states in South 
America, in the order named. In this part of the course the compara- 
tive method is very prominent, the government of England being con- 
sidered in greatest detail. 

The course begins with the United States, because the study of 
American institutions and practices affords to the American student 
a natural approach to the study of politics. Moreover, the United 
States is the leading example of the presidential type of free govern- 
ment and was a pioneer among the nations, in setting up a govern- 
ment consciously based on popular control. England is studied next, 
because of the close connection between English and American institu- 
tions and the many important contrasts to be found, and because 
England is the originator and chief example of cabinet government. 
France comes third, because of her illuminating experiences as a 
republic, with cabinet government, under the Roman legal system, 
and because of her highly centralized democracy and the consequent 
contrasts to be made with both England and the United States. 
Germany is considered next, because she affords an example of a great 
state changing from autocratic to popular government, and because 
her federal system may be compared so profitably with that of Switzer- 
land and that of the United States. Switzerland is studied, because 
she is the most conspicuous example of triumphant, assured democ- 
racy, and has developed a system that is distinctly her own, — one that 
is neither presidential nor cabinet in character. Argentina and Chile 
are studied, because of the light they throw upon South American 
problems and upon the utilization of political institutions and forms 
designed for radically different peoples and conditions. 



210 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

From the work of this course, the student attains several important 
results. He acquires information not only of the institutions of his 
own country, but of a number of leading free states; he develops an 
interest in international relations and problems; his sympathies and 
political outlook are broadened; his national prejudices are weakened; 
he gains some understanding of politics as a science; and he develops 
the inclination and, in part, the ability to measure the political stand- 
ards and conduct of his own government by those of other states. 1 

University of California 
beginning course in comparative government 

The beginning course in political science in the University of 
California is a course in comparative government. The course is 
given for three hours a week, two hours being devoted to lectures 
and one hour to quiz sections, under the direction of teaching fellows 
in the department. At the present time there are 450 students en- 
rolled in the course and there are 15 quiz sections. These sections 
are now too large and their number must be increased another year. 
A definite reading assignment is given each week, and upon this 
assignment a twenty-minute paper is set in each quiz section. 

The time of the course is divided as follows: 

FIRST SEMESTER. 

Government of England. 7 weeks. Req. reading — selections from 

Lowell, Government of England (in 191 5- 
1916 a total of 462 pages was assigned). 

Government of France. 4 weeks. Req. reading — Constitution of 

1875. Ogg, Governments of Europe 
(Chapters on France). Selections from 
Lowell, Government and Parties in Con- 
tinental Europe and from other books to a 
total of 150 pages. 

Government of Italy. 2 weeks. Req. reading — Italian constitu- 

tion. Ogg, Governments of Europe 
(pages on Italy) and 100 pages to be 
selected from a list of books including 
Lowell, Government and Parties of Con- 
tinental Europe, etc. 

1 Furnished by J. W. Gannaway. 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 211 

Government of Switzer- 2 weeks. Req. reading — Constitution of 
land. Switzerland. Ogg, Governments of Eu- 

rope. 

SECOND SEMESTER. 

Government of Germany. 5 weeks. Req. reading— Kriiger, Govern- 
ment and Politics of the German Empire. 
Constitution of German Empire. Ogg, 
Governments of Europe — (portion relat- 
ing to Prussia). 
Government of Austria. 2 weeks. Req. reading — Constitutional 

Law of Austria and Hungary. Ogg, Gov- 
ernments of Europe. 
Government of the United 8 weeks. Req. reading — Selections from 
States. Bryce, American Commonwealth. Reed, 

T. H., Government for the People. 
Owing to peculiar conditions in this university, we permit students 
to begin this course in either semester. The great majority, however, 
begin in the Fall, which is by far the best plan. 

In explanation of the above outline, it should be said that we have 
put American government at the end of the Spring semester because 
the students almost without exception come to college after just 
completing a course in American government in their high school 
senior year. We have felt it necessary to give them a fresh point 
of view. Our treatment of American government is not systematic, 
but is simply a critical treatment of some of our institutions in the 
light of what the class has been able to learn from the experience 
with other countries. We give in the upper division a course in Ameri- 
can institutions for those who desire a more intensive knowledge of 
American government, especially those who desire to teach the sub- 
ject in high school. 1 

Columbia University 

Our elementary course is limited to American government. It \vas 
found on experience that students coming up from secondary schools 
have very crude notions about our own government and that there 
would be danger of superficiality if we attempted too much in the 
first year. Moreover, we have a course in comparative government 
which students may take after they have completed the elementary 
course. 2 

1 Furnished by Thomas B. Reed. 2 Furnished by Charles A. Beard. 



212 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Harvard University 

Our chief elementary course, Government i , is an elective, open to 
freshmen and sophomores. About five hundred students are enrolled. 
There are two lectures per week throughout the academic year, or 
about sixty-six lectures in all. Once each week the class meets in 
sections, of about twenty students per section, for a short paper and 
discussion both based on the assigned reading of the week. There are 
twenty-four of these sections, handled by six assistants, each assistant 
having four sections. That is, in brief, the machinery of the course. 

Now as for the plan. The course presents a general survey of 
present-day government, dealing chiefly (in fact, almost entirely) with 
the governments of England, France, Germany, Italy, and the United 
States. The first half-year is devoted to European government, the 
second half entirely to American government. I have adopted this 
arrangement for the following reasons. First, a study of the European 
government seems necessary to give a proper background for intelli- 
gent work on the government of the United States. Second, if the 
students are to have good disciplinary training, it is desirable that 
they should begin with a study of institutions which they know rela- 
tively little about, rather than with those which are already somewhat 
known to them. Experience has taught me that the freshman or 
sophomore whose first book on government is one relating to his own 
country is likely to develop superficial habits of reading and to take 
a great deal for granted. 

On an average about sixty to seventy pages of reading are assigned 
each week, in Lowell's " Government of England," and Lowell's 
" Governments and Parties " during the first half-year; in " The Fed- 
eralist" and Bryce's " American Commonwealth " during the second 
half-year. 

Students are required to have passed this course before they can 
be admitted to any of the other courses offered by the University in 
the Department of Government. 1 



University of Illinois 

(i) The elementary courses are, 

(a) American National Government, offered the first semester. 

(b) American State and Local Government, offered the second 
semester. 

1 Furnished by W. B. Munro. 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 213 

The content of these courses is indicated by the two principal works 
used in them, namely: Bryce, "The American Commonwealth/' 
a large part of Volume 1 and selected portions of Volume 2; and Beard, 
"American Government and Politics." These two works are supple- 
mented by collateral readings and by lectures given by members of 
the department. Students may enroll in either course without taking 
the other. Except as it is given in lecture and weekly quiz work, 
the matter of definition, terminology, and the introduction of com- 
parative material is not emphasized. 

(2) The reasons why these courses have been made our elementary 
courses are as follows: 

(a) This is a state university, and a large proportion of our students, 
being enrolled in other colleges than that of liberal arts and sciences, 
have time to take but one or two courses in political science. We feel, 
therefore, that such courses as they are able to take ought to bear 
more or less directly upon American government. 

(b) American government constitutes a part of the required work 
in the College of Commerce, and should, therefore, be an open course 
without many prerequisites. 

(c) No freshmen are allowed to enter these courses. We get only 
sophomores and upper-class men in them. For this reason we have 
a somewhat more mature group of students than we would get if 
we made these elementary courses open to first-year men. For this 
reason, too, we have felt justified in giving a rather comprehensive 
survey of American government without requiring a course in the 
elements of political science. 

(d) There is a feeling in the department that a course in actual gov- 
ernment is preferable for a beginning course to one which deals more 
or less with political theory and government in the abstract. 1 

University of Iowa 

American government, a freshman elective of four hours per week 
throughout the academic year, has been the elementary course in 
political science at the State University of Iowa since 1903 when the 
course was first outlined and presented by Professor F. E. Horack. 

Three divisions of this course are now (1915-1916) being given in 
which 112 students are registered. At present Beard's " American 
Government and Politics " is used as a text, supplemented by library 
readings. The lecture method is very little employed in this course ; 

1 Furnished by R. N. Story. 



214 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

instead, oral quizzes, in which discussion and debate are encouraged, 
and written tests every other week constitute the method of in- 
struction. 

An important phase of the work in American government consists 
of the preparation of weekly papers on subjects germane to the ma- 
terial under consideration. This has been found to be an effective 
method of extending the reading of students and of acquainting them 
more intimately with the problems of American government. The 
following topics illustrate the nature of the subject-matter of these 
papers: 

i. Should the Presidents veto power be extended? 

2. Is a single six -year presidential term advisable? 

3. Should debate in the Senate be limited? 

4. Compare the power of Speaker Cannon with that of Speaker 
Clark. 

5. Should political affiliations be considered in making appoint- 
ments to the Supreme Court of the United States? 

On Monday or Tuesday of each week the student must submit, 
at a designated hour, an outline of the paper assigned together with a 
list of at least five different references which he has consulted and pro- 
poses to use in writing his paper. On the following Thursday the 
papers are handed in (delinquent papers are reduced in credit). 
These are corrected and returned to the student when he appears the 
following week with the outline of his next paper. Papers are cor- 
rected not only as to the accuracy of the facts stated, but also as to the 
method of presentation, English, and orthography, special emphasis 
being laid upon the scientific use of foot-note references. 1 

University of Michigan 

At present the elementary course in American government given 
at the University of Michigan proceeds continuously during both 
semesters, three hours per week, two hours being given to lectures. 
The additional hour, nominally for quiz purposes, is made use of for 
informal discussion as well as for recitation. As there are over two 
hundred electing this course at the present time the group is divided 
into eight quiz sections. I am not sure that this is an ideal arrange- 
ment, but it is rendered necessary by the size of classes here in ele- 
mentary courses, and the relatively small number of men to handle 
the sections. The first half of the first semester is given to a consider- 

1 Furnished by B. F. Shambaugh. 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 215 

ation of the elements of government, using Leacock's " Elements of 
Political Science "as a text, with collateral readings in Jenk's " History 
of Politics," Sir Henry Maine's "Ancient Law," and other works that 
give a certain historical as well as comparative basis for the study of 
government. The lectures attempt to supplement Leacock. The 
second half of the first semester is given to a consideration of Federal 
government, using Beard's "American Government and Politics" and 
his readings as text and collateral reading. In order to make the work 
continuous, the treatment of federal government is carried through 
into the second semester, following which state governments are 
taken up and the second half of the second semester is given over 
to party organization. In this course it might seem that too much 
stress is laid upon the federal government, but this objection is met, 
I think, by the fact that no other course considers American federal 
government as a whole, and additional courses are open to those who 
have had courses 1 and 2, in state government and administration 
(2 hours per week, first semester), in local government (3 hours per 
week, first semester) and in municipal government (3 hours per week, 
both semesters). 

If it were not difficult to coordinate a four hour course with the 
general scheme of the undergraduate curriculum, I should enlarge 
the course to four hours per w r eek, both semesters, retaining the two 
formal lectures, and using the additional hour for further informal 
discussion in small groups. Could these groups be limited to twelve 
or fifteen, I think we might have a satisfactory organization. In 
order to obtain as much informal discussion in the smaller groups as 
possible, a ten-minute written exercise is set for each of the groups 
each w r eek. This usually directs attention to some phase of the as- 
signed readings. I try to make the lectures suggestive rather than 
encyclopedic, depending upon the readings to furnish a basis of com- 
mon facts. 1 

University of Missouri 

American Government. 

This course is a prerequisite for all other work in the department of 
political science, except a brief two-hour, one-semester course in con- 
temporary international politics. It is given as a five-hour, one- 
semester course, and is based en Beard's " American Government 
and Politics " as a text. The instructor lectures to the class four 
times a week, and on the fifth day the class is broken up into sections of 

1 Furnished by J. S. Reeves. 



216 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

about twenty students each and a quiz is conducted upon the reading 
and lectures. Approximately half of the time of the course is devoted 
to federal government, and half to state and local government. The 
three points of view: structure, function, and growth or evolution are 
kept constantly in view. Little attention is paid to political theory, 
it being the belief of the department that such studies, which are still 
in a highly controversial state, should be reserved to the period 
when the student has acquired from the concrete study of his own 
and foreign governments the data upon which alone a satisfactory 
theory of the state can be constructed. 

One of the most valuable parts of the work of this course is the 
essay on some special topic which each student is required to write. 
The assistants in the course give considerable time and thought to 
the guidance of students in the preparation of these essays. It is 
insisted upon that every essay shall be accompanied by a topical 
outline, a bibliography, and appropriate foot-note references to ma- 
terial used. The topics assigned are of a kind requiring the use of 
documentary or other source material, and frequently involve origi- 
nal investigation by means of visits to or correspondence with public 
officials. Two conferences are held by the assistants with each in- 
dividual student during the preparation of his essay. 1 

University of Wisconsin 

The elementary course in political science at the University of 
Wisconsin is "American Government and Politics." The course 
runs four hours a week for one semester of eighteen weeks. There 
are two lectures each week and two quiz sections, the class being 
divided into small groups of from fifteen to eighteen members each for 
the oral quiz work. Every three weeks a rigid written quiz is given 
in place of one of the oral quizzes of that week. 

The first two weeks are devoted to the origin and development of 
government. The next seven weeks are given to the history and 
adoption of the federal constitution and to the study of the subject 
of state government. Two weeks are then devoted to the features of 
party government. The theory of the course is to introduce the stu- 
dent to the various phases of government and politics as illustrated by 
American experience. No attempt is made to outline the structure 
of European governments. 

In addition to this work every member of the class is required to 

1 Furnished by W. J. Shepard. 






INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 217 

select for critical study from a list of books one on some phase of 
American government. 

The plan is found to give satisfactory results. The small sections 
for oral quizzes allow individual instruction. The written quizzes 
give an efficient check on work assigned in the text and assigned 
readings, and the assignment of a special volume gives an intensive 
study in a particular field. 1 

3. That more emphasis be given to administrative methods and the 
enforcement of the law. 

One of the points of controversy in the making of schedules 
of courses in political science is to determine the relative amount 
of emphasis to be given to constitutional and political history, 
to the legal framework and organization of government and 
to the study of government as a functioning organ. Answers 
to an inquiry submitted to instructors, although usually based 
upon rough estimates, indicated that almost twice as much time 
is given to the structure of government as to constitutional 
history, and that as a rule the study of functions or " physiology 
of politics" receives more attention than legal framework and 
constitutional history combined. 

There is evidently a marked tendency in both colleges and 
universities to shift the emphasis from constitutional history 
(this subject being left frequently to the department of history 
or dropped entirely) and governmental organization to the anal- 
ysis and consideration of government in operation. 

The following comments are typical: 

Beloit: — Greatest stress on functions, much effort made to 
show real vital activities of the present and how they rather than 
constitutional framework disclose real government. 

Columbia University: — Within the past few years there has 
been a very marked emphasis placed upon the actual workings 
of government as compared with constitutional theory or con- 
stitutional history. 

1 Furnished by Chester Lloyd Jones. 



218 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

Grinnell College: — We place the emphasis decidedly on gov- 
ernmental functions and activities. The historical side of our 
work receives the least consideration. Government as it is and 
as it promises to be is what we seek to understand. 

Ohio State University: — The tendency in successive rear- 
rangements of courses is to lay more stress upon governmental 
functions and activities. 

University of Michigan: — While I cannot give divisions of 
time, I stress functions and activities rather than framework, 
though the latter is absolutely necessary to an understanding of 
the former, i. e., a knowledge of anatomy should precede that of 
physiology or pathology. 

University of Wisconsin: — In all advanced courses a knowl- 
edge of constitutional and institutional history and develop- 
ment is assumed, and the functions, activities and forces are 
discussed. In the more elementary courses the emphasis is on 
constitutional history and strongly on legal framework of govern- 
ment. 

So far as it is possible to judge the content of courses by the 
brief announcements in college catalogues it appears that pri- 
mary consideration is given to constitutions, to administrative 
organization, and to the organization of political parties. In 
the courses in American government, the national government 
receives most attention, state government next, and then come 
in order local and municipal. The proportionate distribution of 
time which results leaves but little opportunity to deal with local 
government and gives but scant attention to the judiciary. In 
view of the fact that no small part of law is made by the courts, 
and that the average citizen is affected most by the rules as laid 
down, interpreted and applied by the judiciary, it seems strange 
that the legislative department should have been given compara- 
tively so much more attention by students of government than 
judicial administration and administrative practices. These 
topics are frequently treated inadequately in elementary texts 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 219 

and often they are entirely neglected. The emphasis on the 
study of functions rather than machinery, the introduction of 
courses in administrative methods and the beginning of a more 
scientific study of judicial administration are all tending to shift 
the emphasis in government instruction. 

4. That instructors in political science encourage students to pre- 
pare reports and surveys on actual political conditions. 
One of the general charges brought against teachers is the 
failure to relate the instruction given to the conditions and en- 
vironment of the students. According to this charge it is the 
purpose of education to give an interpretation of everything in 
the realm of nature and thought except the commonplace affairs 
to be found in the very midst of the school, the home and the 
community in which the children live. To a certain extent this 
charge is true as applied to instruction in government. The 
governments of Europe, the national government, and per- 
chance a slight glance at state government have virtually 
crowded out the study of local police courts, the townhall and 
county affairs and the myriad problems of local and municipal 
government. While the botanist, geologist, biologist and chem- 
ist have begun to make use of the marvelous environment with 
which each community is endowed the teachers of government 
have been exceedingly slow to appreciate the priceless heritage 
of social and political institutions surrounding each individual. 
The emphasis on community civics in the schools has begun to 
introduce a change in perspective and has tended to make the 
elementary study of government concrete and vital. Legisla- 
tive and municipal reference libraries and bureaus of research 
have paved the way for an exceedingly fruitful field for the col- 
leges and universities. A few instructors have appreciated the 
possibilities of putting students to useful endeavor and at the 
same time giving them exceedingly valuable training. The 
opportunity of turning to advantage some of the hitherto 



220 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

wasted efforts has possibilities which can be only vaguely 
conceived. 

One need only examine the character and scope of the work 
accomplished by a few of the bureaus undertaking such investi- 
gations and reports to be convinced of the great value to the 
community and the excellent training gained thereby. Such bu- 
reaus may be converted into veritable government laboratories 
where are rendered available not only the recent literature on 
special subjects but also maps, charts and a collection of material 
prepared in graphic form. By the aid of small classes of mature 
students governmental surveys may be undertaken and much 
material presented in a form which can be used by citizens and 
public officials. 

Of course this kind of thing can readily be overdone and the 
work of the class-room can be easily cheapened by too frequent 
sociological excursions and holidays. Practical work needs to 
be specially guarded, sparingly used, and credit should be given 
only under rigorous conditions which meet the standard require- 
ments of scientific accuracy, completeness and thoroughness. 
Under such conditions work of this character may be made a 
valuable supplement and inspiration and may be so directed 
as to turn to the profit of the community. 

5. That Reference Libraries and Research Bureaus be estab- 
lished for the purpose of rendering aid to government officials and 
interested citizens. 

The development of the use of charts in surveys and the presen- 
tation of government facts in graphic form for various purposes, 
along with the rise of reference libraries and bureaus of research, 
have had a marked influence upon the study as well as the 
operation of government. It is just as necessary for teachers 
of government to have a special room with adequate equipment 
as it is for teachers of geology or chemistry. In fact the nature 
of much material along governmental lines is such that it can 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 221 

be collected, classified and effectively used only when concen- 
trated in a room under the immediate direction and supervision 
of the department. Maps, charts and graphic material should 
be used much more freely in all political instruction, and this 
will never be possible until separate quarters are set apart for 
this purpose. The use of government reports and graphic ma- 
terial, the preparation of such material by students, the proper 
preservation and disposal of documents and charts require a 
separate room with full equipment for modern reference library 
work and with special appliances for the constant use of graphic 
methods. 

The excellent work being done by the state universities 
through bureaus of research and reference on municipal affairs 
gives an indication as to what may be accomplished in the way 
of improving instruction as well as rendering extremely useful 
service to the public. Similar bureaus might well be organized 
dealing with state and federal affairs with the twofold purpose 
of serving as laboratories for the study of government and for 
rendering service to the public. 

6. That provision be made for professional training for certain 
branches of the public service. 

More than thirty years ago Honorable Andrew D. White 
called the attention of educators to the fact that, in striking 
contrast with European countries, there was no such thing as 
training for the public service in the United States. Although 
the past thirty years have witnessed a remarkable development 
of university instruction along the lines of government, econom- 
ics, and sociology, the attention of the country was only recently 
directed again to the utter neglect of training for public office 
both in and out of educational institutions. Various committees 
of national organizations have investigated and rendered re- 
ports. National societies and local organizations have been 
formed to train for the public service. So much has been written 



222 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

along this line that one is astonished to find how few positions 
there are for which special training is not now given in univer- 
sities and how rare the cases are that men specially trained for 
such service receive permanent appointments with adequate 
salary and opportunity for advancement. The committee on 
training for public service of Columbia University explains the 
present situation in some conclusions which may well be repeated 
here. 

First. The most important positions which are attractive to college 
men and women are filled by political appointment and are, therefore, 
on the " exempt' * list. In New York City, the exempt class includes, 
besides heads of departments, deputy commissioners, secretaries of 
departments, all high salaried assistants to the corporation counsel, 
numerous accountants, auditors, and examiners, confidential inspec- 
tors, consulting and chief engineers, superintendents, assistant 
superintendents, and similar officers of high grade. 

Appointments to such positions are usually made by either elective 
or appointive officers, and the selections are determined largely by 
personal and political considerations. The persons chosen are usually 
lawyers, journalists, business men, or party workers. It is not often 
that a young college graduate is given a post of trust in the public 
service. Experience, maturity, and what is known in politics as 
"availability" are the controlling factors. 

The terms of such positions are limited and the tenure is uncertain. 
Although there are several conspicuous exceptions, a public career by 
the way of political appointment is very unusual. To encourage 
students to prepare themselves solely for positions in this branch of 
public service would therefore be a breach of academic trust. Law- 
yers, journalists, and business men have their means of livelihood and 
independence until the desirable political appointments come, and at 
the end of their terms they may return to their previous occupations. 
But the student carefully trained in political and administrative 
science and disciplined by practical experience is not so fortunate if the 
desired career in official service does not open when he has completed 
his preparation. 

Clearly, it would be inadvisable for the University to announce that 
it is prepared to train men and women for the higher non-technical 
branches of public service, when as a matter of fact the system of 



INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 223 

appointments and tenures now prevailing in the United States does 
not offer adequate opportunity for careers in such branches. The 
fact that the Training School for Public Service in New York, sup- 
ported by the prestige of the Bureau of Municipal Research, has sent, 
in its three years of work, only eight or ten of its students into official 
service of any kind and only three or four men into regular adminis- 
trative positions of high character is an indication of the difficulties 
which lie in the way of finding satisfactory openings in official public 
service for those specially trained. 

With regard to positions in the official service open to college 
men and women on a competitive basis and reasonably attractive 
in opportunities and rewards the committee finds two classes. 
The first group is that of technical and professional positions, 
of which there are a large number in state and federal civil 
service. For these technical positions the courses now given in 
the large universities like Columbia are found to be well adapted 
to the preparation of students for examinations. A second 
group is designated as non-technical administrative positions, 
very few of which are regarded as desirable openings for a career 
in the public service. 

To offset these rather discouraging observations it is asserted 
that improvement in civil administration in the United States 
has originated in large measure in societies organized and main- 
tained by private citizens such as Bureaus of Research, Civic 
Leagues, etc., and that by far the most importar. ': openings for 
college men and women arise in connection with such organiza- 
tions as directors, secretaries, and expert workers. It is, the 
committee notes, "this unofficial public service that offers the 
largest attractions to college men and women and opens the best 
gateway to direct official service." Suggestions for a program 
of studies leading to the public service are then offered compris- 
ing: 

1. Two or three years of regular college training including ele- 

mentary government, economics, etc. 

2. One year of special training embracing such subjects as munic- 



224 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 

ipal government, administrative law, government accounting, 
public finance, statistics and graphic methods, etc. 
3. One year of contact or field work and observation involving: 

a. Budget making. 

b. The investigation of several branches of public administra- 

tion. 

c. The preparation of reports and recommendations on the 

basis of ascertained results. 

d. The practice of presenting oral statements of results in 

short form. 

Of a similar character is the "proposed standard regulations 
for the Ph. D. degree" prepared by the committee on Practical 
Training for Public Service of the American Political Science 
Association, according to which candidates for the doctor's de- 
gree in the social sciences may fulfill the resident requirements 
of three years' graduate study as follows: 

1. Two years' resident graduate study in some recognized institution 

of learning. 

2. Practical work for at least eleven months in a governmental 

department, bureau or commission, a legislative reference 
library, a bureau of municipal research or similar organization. 

The above proposals are presented merely as instances of a 
beginning made to consider and to aim consciously to pro- 
vide training for the public service. Obviously progress will be 
slow in making provision for professional training in many 
branches of government service and even more slow will be 
the possibility of securing places for those competently trained. 
But the committee includes this recommendation chiefly with 
the end in view of encouraging the formation of such committees 
as that of Columbia University in order that attention may be 
called to the facilities now offered for such training, and that 
when deemed appropriate suggestions may be made as to modi- 
fications in existing courses or the addition of new courses, and 
further that the attention of students as well as the public may 
be called to the facilities now available for such training. 



APPENDIX 

REPORTS OF STATE COMMITTEES ON THE TEACH- 
ING OF CIVICS IN ELEMENTARY AND SECOND- 
ARY SCHOOLS 

In order to secure additional data and to offer a fairly accurate 
account of the status of instruction in government arrangements 
were made for the appointment of state committees on the teach- 
ing of civics. State departments of public instruction and the 
departments of social and political sciences in universities aided 
in the selection of the committees. The members chosen were 
as a rule teachers of civics, superintendents and principals, and 
others who are particularly interested in civic instruction. These 
committees not only rendered invaluable assistance in the 
gathering of data but also gave advice in the preparation of 
suggestions as to methods and courses of study. In a number 
of cases information was furnished but no formal report was 
prepared. For the investigations a questionnaire similar in 
form to that used in the Bureau of Education inquiry * was 
suggested in order to secure uniform returns. The results se- 
cured by many of the committees and the reports based on a 
careful survey of the state constitute an important record as 
to the condition of government instruction in the public schools. 
The committee on instruction regrets that not all of the thor- 
ough and interesting reports from these committees can be pre- 
sented in full. Owing to the limits of space, it has been neces- 
sary to condense the longer and more extensive reports. An 
effort has been made to include the most valuable portions of 

1 See pp. -745°- 
225 



226 APPENDIX 

each report, and with but few exceptions the exact language of 
the original report is followed. 

I. Members of State Committees and State Representatives 
Selected to Aid the Committee on Instruction 

Arizona: 

Harold Steele, Principal, Tucson High School. 

Arkansas: 

David Y. Thomas, Chairman, University of Arkansas, Fayette- 
ville. 

B. W. Torreyson, Little Rock. 

R. E. Womack, State Normal, Conway. 
L. E. Bassett, Pine Bluff. 
R. C. Hall, City Superintendent, Little Rock. 
J. W. KuykendoU, Fort Smith. 

C. H. Brough, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. 

Alabama: 

D. G. Chase, Chairman, Central High School, Birmingham. 
John B. Clark, Guin. 

E. M. Shackelford, Troy. 

C. V. Thompson, Wetumpka. 

Foster Ausley, Central High School, Birmingham. 

California: 

William J. Cooper, Chairman, Berkeley High School. 
J. R. Sutton, Oakland High School. 
Roscoe L. Ashley, Pasadena High School. 
Anna Stewart, Los Angeles High School. 
E. G. Nash, Marysville High School. 

Colorado: 

Ira Nestor, North Side High School, Denver. 

Delaware: 

E. V. Vaughan, Chairman, Delaware College, Newark. 

J. E. Chipman, Principal, Delmar. 

W. H. Jump, Principal, Harrington. 

R. F. Friedel, Principal, Newark. 

W. K. Ycrger, Principal, 2325 Pcnna. Ave., Wilmington. 



APPENDIX 227 

Georgia: 

J. F. Thomason, Chairman, Superintendent, Bainbridge. 
Julia Flisch, Augusta. 
Florence Berne, Macon. 
Bethe Rucker, Brunswick. 
Lola Kestley, Americus. 

Illinois: 

L. A. Fulwider, Chairman, Principal, Freeport. 

Mary Childs, Evanston High School, Evanston. 

U. S. Parker, Quincy High School, Quincy. 

Silas Echols, Township High School, Mt. Vernon. 

W. R. Spurrier, Principal, Township High School, Princeton. 

Indiana: 

O. H. Williams, Chairman, Indiana University, Bloomington. 

D. W. Horton, Mishawaka High School, Mishawaka. 

Charles Roll, Department of American History, State Normal 

School, Terre Haute. 
Mrs. Hope Graham, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis. 

Iowa: 

Aaron Palmer, Chairman, Superintendent, Marshalltown. 

J. E. Marshall, Principal, Council Bluffs. 

C. C. BaU, Boone. 

George A, Brown, Principal, Burlington High School, Burlington. 

Alice E. Moss, W. Des Moines High School, Des Moines. 

Kentucky: 

A. M. Stickles, Chairman, State Normal School, Bowling Green. 
Charles Keith, Kentucky State Normal, Richmond. 
George W. Calvin, Superintendent, Springfield. 
J. H. Bentley, Superintendent, Paducah. 
L. E. Foster, Hopkinsville. 

Louisiana: 

A. J. Caldwell, Chairman, Principal, Hammond High School. 

E. F. Dummeier, Principal, Leesville High School. 
S. M. Brame, Principal, Alexandria High School. 
Grace Sharp, Shreveport High School. 

J. H. Dupuy, Louisiana Industrial Institute, Ruston. 



228 APPENDIX 

Maine: 

Fred D. Wish, Jr., Chairman, Portland High School. 
A. W. Reynolds, Biddeford High School. 

E. S. Lewis, Auburn High School. 
Elmer T. Boyd, Bangor High School. 
Charles L. Smith, Principal, Bath High School. 

Maryland: 

Charles H. Kolb, Chairman, Principal, Westminster High School. 

Joseph Blair, Principal, Sparrows Point High School. 

Mary C. Ott, Frederick. 

Margaret A. Pfeiffer, Assistant in High School, Ellicott City. 

David E. Weglein, Principal Western High School, Baltimore. 

Massachusetts: 

Edwin A. Cottrell, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. 

Michigan; 

Carl Pray, Ypsilanti Normal School, Ypsilanti. 

Minnesota: 

N. R. Ringdahl, Chairman, Superintendent, Rush City. 
P. M. Magnuson, State Normal, St. Cloud. 
W. H. Shepard, North High School, Minneapolis. 
Albert J. Lobb, West High School, Minneapolis. 

F. W. Moore, State Normal, Winona. 

Missouri: 

Eugene Fair, Chairman, State Normal School, Kirksville. 

H. R. Tucker, McKinley High School, Webster Groves. 

William A. Lewis, Central High School, Kansas City. 

Lowry Doran, Springfield High School. 

P. P. Calloway, High School Inspector, State Capitol, Jefferson 

City. 
Alberta M. Ross, Springfield High School. 

Montana: 

A. J. Roberts, Chairman, Principal, Helena High School. 

Lewis M. Simes, Missoula. 

Margaret Boyle, Butte. 

Otis W. Freeman, Lewistown. 

Harold Westergaard, Billings. 



APPENDIX 



229 






New Hampshire: 

Guy E. Speare, Chairman, Littleton High School. 

C. F. Cook, Principal, Concord. 

J. F. Smith, Principal, Keene. 

E. W. Butterfield, Superintendent, Dover. 

E. P. Freese, Principal, North Stratford. 

New Jersey: 

C. Ernest Dechant, Chairman, Supervising Principal, Haddon- 

field. 
Sara N. Dynes, State Normal School, Trenton. 
Edward A. Parker, New Brunswick High School. 
Harry F. Stauffer, Principal, Washington Street Grammar School, 

Newark. 
Walter H. Mohr, Milville High School. 

New York: 

William W. Rogers, Chairman, Curtis High School, Staten 

Island, N. Y. C. 
M. L. Dann, Richmond Hill High School, N. Y. C. 
S. J. Jumnefsky, Julia Richman High School, N. Y. C. 
George D. Luetscher, Jamaica High School, N. Y. C. 
Harrison C. Thomas, DeWitt Clinton High School, N. Y. C. 
E. D. Lewis, High School of Commerce, N. Y. C. 

North Carolina: 

W. C. Jackson, Chairman, State Normal School, Greenboro. 

C. L. Coon, Superintendent, Wilson. 

L. Lea White, Principal, Winston-Salem. 

T. Wingate Andrews, Superintendent, Reidsville. 

North Dakota: 

Albert Vollweiler, Chairman, University. 
J. S. Bjornson, LaMoure. 
Norman Smith, Cando. 
R. B. Murphy, Michigan. 
Oscar Erickson, Hatton. 

Ohio: 

L. O. Lantis, Chairman, North High School, Columbus. 
Grace Morris, Defiance. 
E. M. Benedict, Cincinnati. 
W. H. Townsend, Ashtabula. 
H. J. Dickerson, Newark. 



230 APPENDIX 

Oklahoma: 

Dr. Charles Evans, President, Central Normal School, Edmond. 

Oregon: 

Herbert B. Augur, Jefferson High School, Portland. 

Pennsylvania: 

W. D. Renninger, Chairman, Central High School, Philadelphia. 

D. Montfort Melchoir, Girard College, Philadelphia. 
C. D. Koch, State High School Inspector, Harrisburg. 
T. D. Brown, Peabody High School, Pittsburgh. 
Samuel E. Weber, Superintendent, Scranton. 

South Carolina: 

Frank E. Broyles, Chairman, Columbia. 
Elizabeth Baskerville, Orangeburg High School. 
Alice Stribling, Spartanburg High School. 
Samuel W. Anderson, Anderson High School. 
T. M. Seawell, Superintendent, Blackville. 

South Dakota: 

H. C. Johnson, Chairman, Superintendent, Aberdeen. 

Luman Sampson, Aberdeen High School. 

W. I. Early, Principal, Sioux Falls High School. 

J. C. Lindsey, Principal, Mitchell. 

Joseph T. Glenn, Superintendent, Milbank. 

Tennessee: 

J. L. Highsaw, Central High School, Memphis. 

Texas: 

Rush M. Caldwell, Chairman, Dallas High School. 
C. C. Pearson, Houston High School. 

E. T. Genheimer, Principal, Waco High School. 

Thomas Fletcher, Visitor of Schools, University of Texas, Austin. 

Utah: 

L. J. Muir, Chairman, Bountiful. 
Enoch Jorgensen, Sandy. 
L. J. Nuttall, Spanish Fork. 
H. Claude Lewis, Filmore. 
P. M. Nielsen, Mt. Pleasant. 

Vermont: 

George G. Groat, University of Vermont, Burlington. 






APPENDIX 231 

Virginia: 

J. M. Lear, Chairman, State Normal School, Farmville. 
T. J. Stubbs, Jr., John Marshall High School, Richmond. 
John W. Wayland, Harrisonburg. 
Edgar Sydenstricker, Lynchburg. 

Washington: 

E. C. Roberts, Chairman, Principal, Everett High School. 

C. A. Sprague, Assistant Superintendent, Olympia. 

H. C. Crumpacker, Sedro-Wolley. 

A. Lyle Kaye, North Central High School, Spokane. 

S. E. Fleming, Franklin High School, Seattle. 

West Virginia: 

C. L. Broadwater, Chairman, Mannington High School. 
J. H. Thornton, Wheeling High School. 
Minnie Lee Goff, Charleston High School. 
Dora Lee Newman, Fairmont High School. 
R. O. Hall, Morgantown High School. 

Wisconsin: 

A. C. Shong, Chairman, Principal West Division High School, 

Milwaukee. 
Ira C. Painter, Principal, Wausau. 
J. W. T. Aines, Superintendent, Monroe. 
W. J. Hamilton, Principal, Two Rivers. 
J. J. Enright, Principal, Plymouth. 

Wyoming: 

Beulah M. Garrard, Chairman, Department of Secondary 

Education, University of Wyoming, Laramie. 
V. H. Rowland, Superintendent, Lusk. 
W. M. Baker, Superintendent, Worland. 
R. M. Shreves, Superintendent, Rawlins. 
Mary Persinger, Sheridan. 

II. Reports on the Teaching of Civics 

Alabama 
1. Grade Schools: 

The state course of study prescribes civics in the seventh or 
highest grade of the public schools. 



232 APPENDIX 

Superintendent of Education estimates that there were 18,169 
pupils in the seventh grade enrolled in civics — total enrolment 
in the grades 467,876. 

There is practically no instruction below the seventh grade. 

2. High Schools: 

(a) City: 

Among replies received, three schools — Tuscaloosa, Gadsden and 
Birmingham — report special work outside of the text. 

In all these the student government organizations are giving to the 
pupils excellent training for citizenship. The civics classes in all three 
are making surveys of their respective cities as to government, sanita- 
tion, parks, playgrounds, etc. 

In Birmingham jury trial, nomination and election of state officers 
have been enacted by the civics classes; a study of current events with 
class reports and general discussion has been made, and the different 
forms of county, state and city blanks and legal documents have 
been brought into the class, studied and explained. Last year the 
boys' literary clubs staged the state legislature and enacted several 
laws. 

At Tuscaloosa the boys of the civics classes have joined the civic 
league of the city. They are exempt from fees, but may attend all 
meetings, speak on any subject before that body, but have no vote. 
They aid the league by gathering desired statistics, serving as guides 
and escorts to noted guests of the league. 

(b) County: 

Time devoted to subject is usually four and one-half months of 
five periods per week. A majority of schools owing to the lack 
of library facilities and poorly trained teachers do not under- 
take to use parallel readings or to do practical work. One of 
the district agricultural schools reports that there is self- 
government in the school, fashioned after the state govern- 
ment and that the students are taught government at first 
hand. 

3. Normal Schools: 

In the first year one-third of a year is devoted to Alabama history 

and elementary civil government. 
In four-year schools an advanced course in the senior class is 

devoted to American history and government. The actual 



APPENDIX 233 

time given to government varies considerably. Text-book 
method largely used, supplemented by occasional lectures and 
a little laboratory work. 

Submitted by D. G. Chase, Chairman. 

Arkansas 

I. Preparation: 

Normal Training. Two courses in civics are offered in the Normal 
School at Conway. 

(a) An elementary course, such as is usually offered in the high 
schools. Boynton's text is used and this is supplemented by a con- 
siderable use of magazines, newspapers, ballots, etc. Required of all 
students enrolled in the "Rural Teachers Course." 

(b) Advanced course for seniors in the regular normal course. 
Garner's text is used, supplemented by references to Bryce, Burgess, 
Ashley, Garner (Political Science), Beard, Wilson, etc. Considerable 
use is made of government reports, both state and national ballots, 
initiative petitions, printed bills, etc. Officials are invited to address 
the class and, when possible, they are taken to visit the legislature, 
the quorum court, circuit court, and the state institutions. 

II. Actual teaching: 

A. Grammar Grades: 

In the grammar grades many teachers pay no attention to civics 
until the seventh or eighth grade. They say that it is impossible, 
without unduly crowding the course of study. Others begin in the 
second grade and follow up with practical lessons in simplest form 
bearing upon community life, relations of citizens to each other, their 
privileges and obligations, "just as we do language and nature study/' 
says one teacher. 

B. The High School: 

1. In the high school, civics is taught all the way from the 9th to 
the 12th grade. Most schools allow 18 weeks, a few 12. 

2. The texts used range from such ancient books as Peterman and 
Blocher to James and Sanford, Garner, Forman, and one announces 
the adoption of Beard. For supplementary purposes such works as 
Willoughby, "Rights and Duties of the Citizen," Kirby's "Digest of 
Arkansas Statutes," and official reports are suggested for readings. 

3. Little criticism of texts was offered. But one teacher replied; 
"A modern up-to-date text-book informing the students in the ele- 



234 APPENDIX 

mentary schools what the rights and duties of a citizen are and how 
they may secure and perform the same ought to be published and be 
required by law, to be used in every school in Arkansas." A proper 
appreciation of the importance of local government is yet to be 
created. 

4. In most schools, apparently, most emphasis is laid on what the 
government is, and how it operates, rather than on what it does and 
the place of a citizen in it, as in case of the grammar grades. 

5. (a) No civic scrap book was reported. 

(b) Several report weekly drill in current events. 

(c) Some debates. 

(d) The Literary Digest, Independent, and daily papers are used 

for supplementary work. 

(e) Very few talks by public officials. 

(f) Many take opportunity to visit council meetings, courts, 

legislature, etc., and report on same. 

Submitted by D. Y. Thomas, Chairman. 

California 

Summary of the report. 

Of thirty-eight high schools to whom a questionnaire was sent, 
twenty-one replied answering most of the questions. These answers 
will be summarized: 

I. Year in which Course is Offered: 

9th grade — 2; in Berkeley — local civics free elective; in Sacra- 
mento — local civics required of all pupils in commercial 
course, in Santa Anna, elective. 
10th grade — none. 

nth grade — 4 schools including 2 schools where it is begun 
in nth and finished in 12th, and including Pasadena where 
a pupil may take a single year in the nth or the 12th or 
begin in the nth a consecutive two years' course. 
12th grade — 17 schools, not including Pasadena, referred to 
above. In Berkeley and Sacramento, this work is required 
of all graduating pupils, regardless of whether they have the 
9th grade course. 
In general, the upper grade civics is part of a course in United States 
history and civics covering together a year (in most schools) or a 
year and a half (in a few, especially in Southern California). 



APPENDIX 235 

II. Text-book Used: 

It was the opinion of the committee that the closest approximation 
to the content of the course could be obtained by asking for 

1. The text-book used. 

2. Portions omitted. 

3. Supplementary work. 

With this in mind, the committee ascertained from State Commis- 
sioner Wood the texts used in all California high schools. This in- 
formation had been collected by Mr. Wood in the Fall of 19 14 and the 
reports sent instructors showed no changes in the Spring of 191 5 
except that some of the schools had adopted American history and 
government by Willis M. West, published by Allyn & Bacon. These 
schools were using "Civil Government in Calif ornia" by John R. Sut- 
ton, published by American Book Company for information on state 
and local government. Other than these two books, the committee 
found the following civics books used in California. The number of 
schools using each is also indicated. 

Ashley, R. L. American Government, Macmillan Co., 1908 93 

Beard, C. A., & M. R. American Citizenship, Macmillan Co., 1914 9 

Boynton, F. D. School Civics, Ginn & Co 6 

Fiske, John. Civil Government in the U. S., Houghton-Mifflin Co., 

1890 2 

Forman, S. E. Advanced Civics, Century Co., N. Y., 1905-12- 

15 ••< ■ 25 

Garner, James W. Government in the U. S., American Book Co., 

1911 42 

Guitteau, Wm. B. Government & Politics in the U. S., Houghton- 

Mifflin Co., 1911 8 

Hart, A. B. Actual Government, Longmans, Green & Company 2 
Hinsdale, B. A. The American Government, American Book Com- 
pany, 1905, 1891 4 

James, J. A., & Sanford, A. B. Government in State and Nation, 

Charles Scribners Sons, 1901, n 2 

Moses, B. Government of the U. S., Appleton and Company 1 

Of the schools of three hundred pupils and over enrolled, all but 
three out of thirty use either Ashley's or Forman's or Garner's book, 
and each of these three uses a different text as indicated above. Since 
this information was collected, West's "History and Government" 
has supplanted one or the other of these books in a few of the larger 
schools, exact figures not obtainable at this time. 



236 APPENDIX 

III. Methods of Accomplishing Supplementary Work: 
Practically all of the schools gave information on this point. 

(a) Seventy-five per cent used informal lectures, twenty-five per 

cent, formal. 

(b) Five per cent have typewritten or printed supplements pre- 

pared usually by the department head. 

(c) Ninety per cent make use of reports by pupils on outside 

reading. 

(d) Sixty per cent have pupils take notes on special reports made by 

pupils. 

(e) Approximately sixty per cent use a periodical in some way. 

In most cases, the periodicals are in the libraries and refer- 
ences are made to them, although some schools give courses 
in current history. 

(f) One teacher reports success in organizing the class as a legis- 

lature, political convention or the like. Several report 
success with visits to the city council. Mr. Sutton of Oak- 
land says, "I especially favor the plan of having pupils make 
personal investigations of various offices and institutions 
and report to the classes.' ' Several teachers have written 
reports handed in, some of them being long formal themes on 
topics assigned by the teacher or selected by the pupil 
under the teacher's direction. 

Summary of advice on instruction in government 

1. Eleven schools (fifty per cent of those answering) approve the 
N. E. A. plan l without change. Of the others, there was no agreement 
on what the change should be, although two disapproved the survey 
of vocations and one other would treat the survey and the community 
civics in a half year. 

2. In reply to the inquiry whether two years to European history 
and two years to citizenship subjects was a desirable division of time 
sixteen out of nineteen replying answered "yes," two, "no " and one 
would give two years to the citizenship subjects, but cut the Euro- 
pean history to one year. 

3. Asking what should be the make-up of the two years in citizen- 
ship brought forth many different arrangements, but most of the 
answers can be tabulated as follows: 

1 Reference to recommendations of Committee on Social Studies. 



APPENDIX 237 

United States History , One year 13 

United States History One-half year 2 

Civics One-half year 11 

Civics One year 3 

Economics . One year o 

Economics One-half year 11 

Combination of Economics & Civics . . One year 1 

One would include what he calls Elementary Sociology in the two- 
year course. 

4. Regarding the amount to be prescribed. 

One year . . . . 6 

Two years 10 

Three years 2 

Four years 1 

One and one-half to four years, 

depending on the course 1 

Under "one year " above are two classes who would extend the course 
in United States history and civics to one and one-half years and pre- 
scribe this amount. 

5. It is impossible to classify the answers on the amount of time 
to be given to current events other than to state that about a third of 
those replying would give it approximately twenty per cent of the 
time, some of them setting apart one day in the week for it. 

6. Eleven out of nineteen answering, would treat the local govern- 
ment first, seven would begin with the national government and one 
varies the practice depending upon current events. 

7. Only eleven answers could be obtained to this question, which 
have been approximately tabulated as follows: 

Approximate time allotted to study of division of government: 



No. of days 


National 


State 


Local 


20 


3 


6 


3 


25 


1 


4 


2 


30 


3 


1 


3 


35 


3 


- 


1 


40 


1 


- 


2 



8. Eight believe a short general treatise should precede the study of 
governmental machinery, nine disapprove. 



238 APPENDIX 

9. Nine favor studying machinery first and functions afterwards 
with a review of the formal side. Six would take them up together 
and three assert that it is unimportant. 1 

Submitted by Wm. J. Cooper, Chairman. 

Colorado 

A. Elementary Schools: 

There is a state course of study which needs rewriting and unifying. 
The subjects suggested for civics in the grades are fairly satisfactory. 
In the county schools the aim is to have civics in the eighth grade. 
The number of pupils finishing the eighth grade of the rural schools is 
very small, and that means most of them get little knowledge of 
civics. The present state superintendent is endeavoring to stand- 
ardize the rural schools, about half of the rating being on a civic basis. 
The Colorado State Teachers Association is lending its influence in 
the same direction. 

B. Secondary Schools: 

The study of civics is practically unknown in the short-course 
schools. In non-accredited four-year schools it occurs in only about a 
third of the total number reporting, or in about twenty schools. In 
accredited schools it occurs in between sixty and sixty-five out of the 
seventy-two public high schools. 

The length of the course is usually a half year. In 1913-1914, 
fifteen out of sixteen non-accredited schools reporting it and forty- 
eight of fifty-two accredited schools reporting it, assigned a half year 
to the subject. The others assigned a year. 

In a half dozen cases the division may vary somewhat from a half 
year to history and the following half year to civics, but there is no 
question as to what is the normal condition in this respect. I might 
state, however, that in possibly a dozen of these schools the stress is 
divided fairly equally between history and civics, but the two studies 
run throughout the year in correlation. The attempt is to introduce 
all of civics at the logical point in history. 

Among the non-accredited schools about one-fourth require for 
graduation a half year of civics; among accredited schools the propor- 

1 An appendix to the report gives a description of a course in Civic Prob- 
lems given in the department of social science in the Pasadena high school 
and the report contains also a very careful analysis of the content of the texts 
most commonly used in the slate -Ashley, Garner and Forman. The 
California committee also rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of 
BUggestions for courses of study. 



APPENDIX 239 

tion runs slightly higher. One accredited school requires a year. 
The others constituting some three-fourths, leave the subject an 
elective. The Emerson School, Denver, has in the eighth grade a 
senate whose function it is to encourage good citizenship by dis- 
couraging carelessness in school life. Small fines are assessed for ink- 
spots or badly kept desks, and so on. All the high schools reporting 
do something of a practical nature such as studying local conditions. 
There is a growing feeling that more ought to be done in civics and 
that it be vitalized. Denver is in the midst of a school survey and 
indications are that one result will be an increased emphasis on civics. 

A serious handicap everywhere is the lack of material with which to 
work. As a rule school libraries are woefully behind time. Books 
suited to a past generation burden too many shelves. In particular 
there is a serious need of a handbook giving detailed information 
about all of the state's affairs. 

It is fair to say that there is need of better facilities for the prepara- 
tion of teachers of civics. One of the most progressive and expe- 
rienced county superintendents writes: " The teacher's preparation 
should include courses in method, sociology, psychology, civics, 
economics; universities make no pretense at such instruction and 
too many of our normal schools are neglecting the all important 
task of first teaching the subject matter of these branches. An ex- 
amination of the catalogues of Colorado higher schools does not seem 
to show a single course directed specifically to this end." 

Submitted by Ira F. Nestor, State Representative. 

Georgia 

Tabulation of replies to inquiries made to ascertain the status of the 
teaching of civics in the secondary schools of Georgia (November, 

1915). 

Number of questionnaires sent out, 75. 

Replies, 28. One of which reported no civics taught. 

Schools requiring the teaching of civics: Required of all pupils, n; 
Seniors only, 5; 2d year boys, 1; elective, 5; certain grades, 2; not 
specifically taught, 2. 

Texts used: Boynton's School Civics, 3; Peterman, 3; no text, 3; 
James & Sanford, 2; Forman's Adv. Civ., 2; Beard's, 1; Stickle's, 1; 
Ashley, 2. 

Plan of course as to text and outlines: No reports, 6; text followed, 
8; indefinite, 5; as part of Amer. Hist., 4. 



240 APPENDIX 

Study of government of village, city, etc.: No report, 5; followed 
text, 1; attention to topics, 6; Georgia government, 1. 

Library work: No report, 9; interviews with officials, 4; visits 
to courts, 1; limited, 3; library work for this session, 1. 

Using some form of current events: Yes, 22; No, 1. 

Cooperation of pupils in school government: Yes, 5; some, 7; 
none, 7. 

Aims for teaching of civics: good citizenship; awaken sense of 
responsibility; arouse desire to improve conditions; knowledge of 
government; self-government; make plain pupil's relations to the 
community (broad usage). 

Adaptation of teaching to aims: yes, 8; not good, 5. 

It does not seem worth while to try to make a very careful analysis 
of these returns, since they plainly indicate that civics has not ob- 
tained a very important place in the high schools of Georgia. How- 
ever, there are some encouraging signs, as: use of current events, 
attempts toward self-government, an awakening to the practical rela- 
tions of the study, etc. The time for a good syllabus seems to have 
arrived; such would doubtless help in making civics more prominent 
in the school course. 

Submitted by J. F. Thomason, Chairman. 



Illinois 
A. Elementary Schools: 

Most schools teach civics in some form, some with great thorough- 
ness. In a few cases pamphlets on community civics have been com- 
piled by local teachers. These are used in class work, sometimes 
independently, but more often in connection with other subjects. 
The gratifying fact is that all feel the necessity of civics teaching. 
At present, however, there is no uniformity of method or material. 
In many cases it amounts to "incidental instruction in civics through- 
out the grades in connection with other subjects." 

The time is ripe for organization of material and the establishment 
of standards of method. There is an evident breaking away from 
the formal teaching of government as teachers and superintendents 
grasp and appreciate the rich content of the "new civics." The 
greatest need, probably, is for comprehensive outlines or syllabi for 
the use of the grades of city schools. In the absence of any system, 
genuinely efficient work is being done only here and there where there 
happens to be a well-trained and enthusiastic teacher. 



APPENDIX 241 

B. Secondary Schools: 

This report of the Illinois committee is based on the replies to a 
questionnaire received from fifty-nine of the foremost high schools of 
the state. 

Five schools attempt to teach civics in the first and second years of 
high school. The reason is that many students do not remain longer 
in high school. They must be reached there if at all. These schools 
also teach advanced civics in the fourth year. 

Forty-seven high schools teach separate courses in civics, while 
eleven report a combination of history and civics. Several schools, 
particularly Chicago high schools, teach both separate and com- 
bined courses. Thirty-eight make civics an elective, while twenty- 
one report it required. In a few schools civics is required only in 
certain courses. All but one offer the subject five hours a week. Only 
two report a term of forty weeks. Fourteen offer twenty weeks; 
twenty-two, eighteen weeks; while in two or three, ten or twelve 
weeks are given. One semester is the prevailing term. Six offer com- 
bined United States history and civics. 

The following texts are reported used: by seventeen schools, Garner; 
fourteen schools, James and Sanford; sixteen, Forman; five, Guitteau; 
three, Beard; three, Ashley. In reference books Childs leads with 
thirteen, and there follow James and Sanford, Ashley, Guitteau, 
Garner, Forman, Kaye, Bryce, Beard, Fiske, Fairlie, Hinsdale, 
etc. 

Concerning the defects of present texts in government the following 
replies were made: wanting in practical and concrete illustrations; 
too much material on national government; too little on local govern- 
ment; too much emphasis on form of government; too much emphasis 
on history of government; lack of detailed explanation, too little 
emphasis on duties and obligations of citizens; formal, lacks inspira- 
tion, not lucid; not enough emphasis on functions; too dry; too 
academic; need more outlines and maps; lack of laboratory methods 
and practical lessons; not enough material on administration; not 
teachable for freshmen; too much theory; too technical. Summarizing, 
these replies evidently mean that the texts are too largely given to the 
organization and machinery of government, and far too little to the 
functions of local government. Teachers have not time to organize 
supplementary material and quite generally have not had sufficient 
training to write out comprehensive outlines or develop a syllabus. 
The time is opportune for such a syllabus. . . . The spirit of teachers, 
superintendents, and the public is ripe for its use. Any increase in 



242 APPENDIX 

reference books will not serve to increase the efficiency of civics teach- 
ing in the absence of syllabi that organize the subject and make it 
teachable. 

Twenty-four schools reply that the time allotment should be ex- 
tended, and twenty-four that it should not. While a few ask for a full 
year, the great majority asks for one full semester of eighteen or 
twenty weeks. Schools answering that time should not be extended 
are now offering as much as that. To find time for the increase is 
difficult. Two would omit ancient history. A few suggest cutting 
ancient history to one semester. One would correlate it to the English 
theme work. Another would drop part of the Latin course. The time 
allotment usually given follows: one-half to national, one-fourth to 
state, and one-fourth to local. The reason most frequently given is 
that such a division is followed in the text used. 

Seventeen schools report proceeding from local to state and na- 
tional civics, and eighteen from national to state and local. The 
chief reason assigned is that it is so given in the text used. Little 
improvement may be expected till properly organized material is pro- 
vided to be placed in the hands of the student. Eight replied that the 
chief emphasis is placed on the operation and organization of govern- 
ment, twenty that the chief emphasis is placed on the duties and 
obligations of citizens and community functions, and eight that 
emphasis is equally placed. Even in the case of the twenty, because 
of the want of organized material, it may be doubted if the chief 
emphasis is really so placed. 

Concerning the devices used in teaching civics, sixteen use a scrap 
book, twenty-eight have weekly drills in current events, twenty hold 
debates on political issues, thirteen report reading of non-partisan 
periodicals by the classes, seventeen provide talks to the classes by 
public officials, and several have civic and industrial clubs. Thirteen 
use the Literary Digest, eight the Independent, four the Review of 
Reviews, etc. Thirty-eight schools report personal field investiga- 
tions by students. Such investigations are sporadic and include 
chiefly visits to institutions, county farms, factories, court houses, city 
council chambers, conventions, etc. 

Forty-one schools report no system of student self-government. 
Not one reports a thoroughgoing system, though fourteen report 
some attempt at self-government in one or more phases of school life. 
Of those answering, none has an elaborated system. It consists 
mainly of student councils, advisory committees, literary and athletic 
control, council to control corridors, etc., class boards of control. All 



APPENDIX 243 

seven report it an advantage in discipline. Some have "safety first" 
commissions, and school improvement bureaus. 

The aim of instruction in government in secondary schools is 
stated thus: to train good citizens; knowledge of government ma- 
chinery; to make real Americans — not hyphens; to understand social 
problems; active participation in community life; to teach problems of 
good citizens; personal responsibility of good citizenship; inspiration; 
interest in civic affairs; self -control. 

Seventeen consider their courses in government adequate. The 
reasons assigned are: because it is practical; relatively, yes; study 
present-day civics chiefly; pupils get essentials; adequate as a formal 
course can be. Of the thirty-five reporting their courses not adequate, 
twenty-seven state that it is because of lack of time. Other reasons 
stated are: too much text-book work; formal civics will not produce 
good citizens; inexperienced teacher; emphasize local government; 
not enough practical work; students too immature; because elective; 
one semester too short to offset the influences of a saloon town; 
lack of preparation; lack of reference material — library; lack of 
facilities. 

A majority report ample collegiate preparation. Forty-two teach- 
ers are university graduates; ten graduates of colleges, and five are 
. graduates of normal schools. Thirty-five majored in history, econom- 
ics, political science, or social science. Three minored in the same. 
Two had graduate courses. Ten had taken courses in education in 
college or university. 

To the question asking for suggestions relative to ways and meth- 
ods by which instruction in civics and training for citizenship may be 
improved, twenty-two made no reply. By others the following sug- 
gestions were offered: use more illustrative material; require every 
high school graduate to have it; closer contact with community life; 
more field work; a real man teacher; better texts; a live specialist; 
make it more practical; make it more local; concerted action by col- 
leges and secondary schools to give emphasis; utilize school activities; 
more time; deal with living problems; arouse personal interest of 
students; should be in freshman year to catch students who do not 
finish high school; use of magazines; laboratory course; make the work 
for laymen, and not for the few who will become lawyers. 

What is needed most in Illinois is a suitable syllabus to guide 
teachers in the study of community civics. 

Submitted by L. A. Fulwider, Chairman. 



244 APPENDIX 

Iowa 

Summary of data collected: 

The majority of the schools are offering the work in the last year of 
the high school. Some are giving the work in the third year, and a few 
in the first year. 

The number of weeks given is mostly eighteen, or one semester. 
Some schools give two years, but they are divided between the ninth 
year and the twelfth year. Some schools give but nine weeks. 

The percentage of high school students taking government is from 
fourteen to seventeen per cent. 

The text-books in use are Dunn, Forman, Guitteau, James & San- 
ford, Macy & Geiser, and a few others. Of these Guitteau leads and 
James & Sanford is second. 

From this report of the work which is being done in our state, it is 
very evident that a great deal should be advised along the line of in- 
struction in government for the high school curriculum'. 

Under the guise of correlating civil government with history and 
other subjects the high schools are practically doing nothing in the 
teaching of government. It seems to me that the schools should be 
advised first to change their plan of teaching to a community civics 
plan and to carry the work through two full years of the high school, 
or four half years of the high school. 

One superintendent who is now teaching civics nine weeks, says that 
it will be impossible to get any more time in his school for civics. 

Submitted by A. Palmer, Chairman. 

Kentucky 

i. No syllabus is followed either in common or high schools in 
teaching civics. The teachers in the main have no guide except the 
suggestions of the text-books they use. The committee is unanimous 
in believing a good syllabus would help greatly in getting better re- 
sults. 

2. In Kentucky the law requires that civics be taught in both the 
common and high schools, and a text-book is adopted by the state for 
the rural districts and smaller towns. The larger cities are allowed 
to make their own selections. The common school adopted text is 
Forman's Essentials in Civil Government; the adopted high school 
text is Stickles's Elements of Government. Some of the other text- 
books in use in the state are Dunn's Community and Citizen, Allen's 
Civics and Health, in the grades, and Garner's Government in the 



APPENDIX 245 

United States, and Guitteau's and Hinsdale's texts in the high school. 
It is a lamentable fact, however, that many cities of the state do not 
offer any civics course in their high schools. 

3. When a text-book in civics is used in the common schools, it is 
always in the upper grades, in the seventh and eighth. The grades 
below these get practically no training in this subject at all. When 
they do, it is a few facts poorly correlated with other subjects. 

4. To get proper instruction in civics for children below the seventh 
grade, and to reach those that so frequently stop school before reach- 
ing that grade is a hard problem, but one that needs attention badly. 
The committee agreed that better trained teachers, an awakening 
to the importance of civics as a subject necessary for good citizenship, 
a good syllabus rich in suggestiveness, civics fitted to the daily life 
of the mass of children, and civics connected with reading, language, 
geography, and history — will help solve the problem. 

5. The committee is unanimous in asserting that the teachers in 
rural, town, and city schools are not properly prepared to do effective 
work in civics teaching. In fact, very few in Kentucky are prepared 
to do effective work at present. To help this situation it is recom- 
mended that more attention be paid to civics in our colleges, normal 
schools and high schools, that the "civic viewpoint" be considered 
whenever possible in history and geography particularly, and in any 
other work that may lend itself directly to training for intelligent citi- 
zenship. Laxity in the granting of teachers' certificates is undoubtedly 
another reason why teachers are so poorly prepared. Since there is 
little interest in the teaching of the subject well, it is considered al- 
most as a non-essential, and almost everybody applying for a teacher's 
license is given it should he or she make fairly good grades in other 
subjects. 

6. In a few towns and cities teachers use magazines and daily 
papers to interest pupils in current events and civic problems. Many 
teachers in towns and cities do nothing of this sort, and it is rarely 
done in rural schools. 

7. The civics taught in rural or city schools should be essentially 
the same. However, since a large part of rural children remain as 
citizens in rural communities, while they need to know the general 
civic problems in the relation in which city, state, and nation are in- 
terested, need to have greater stress placed on strictly rural problems. 

8. Only a very few schoolhouses comparatively in the state are 
used as social centres. This movement is growing with the training 
of live teachers who lead and direct communities to the school where 



246 APPENDIX 

real civic problems are discussed. An aroused interest in economic 
problems, and greater activities in politics as well as in better schools, 
better roads, and the school as a social centre will in turn improve 
teaching in civics. 

9. Other suggestions made to push forward better civics work in 
our public schools were: Too much time is given to studying the ma- 
chinery of government of the past, not enough to political and social 
questions of study; the work is not made to mean more civic purity, 
more obligations and duties to the student of to-day; cut from the sub- 
ject as much of the technical as possible, and train students to under- 
stand the government they live in. 

Submitted by A. M. Stickles, Chairman. 

Maine 

A. The Course: 

We find that civics is taught in about all of the schools. 

There are, however, a few of the very smallest schools where the sub- 
ject is not included owing to the crowded condition of the curriculum. 
In a special letter, which this committee will soon send to the schools 
of the state, we shall point out the importance of this work and rec- 
ommend that a place be made for it. 

In practically all of the schools, civics is taught for one-half year. 
This is in line with the practice of the larger schools and is probably all 
that can be expected owing to the crowded condition of the curriculum 
and the small number of teachers. 

The tendency is to require it of all except the pupils taking the 
college preparatory course. However, there are yet some schools 
which make it wholly elective, a condition which we believe should be 
remedied. The exception in the case of college preparatory pupils 
is evidently due to the necessity of using all available time for prep- 
aration along the special lines required by the colleges and is fol- 
lowed by the larger schools. 

The general rule is to offer it in the last two years, especially the 
senior year. In two of the schools, freshman courses are attempted 
and in one of these it is in conjunction with another course during 
the senior year. It is the belief of this committee that if only one 
course can be given, that should be in the last year. However, 
we believe that civics on the "community plan" could be started 
in the grammar grades and might be offered to high school fresh- 
men and sophomores. However, we do not feel that we could rec- 



APPENDIX 247 

ommenci that it be required of the lower classmen because we can- 
not see where a place could be made for it. We feel that community 
civics for the younger students is a vital problem. However, we feel 
that in our state, the first problem to be attacked is that of perfecting 
the more technical course for the upper classes and that the commu- 
nity course may well wait until we get the higher course more nearly 
perfected. 

We regret that the time given to local and state government is 
very small except in the larger schools. However, we feel that the 
reason for this is the lack of material on those subjects as applied 
directly to the local situation and a general lack of knowledge as to 
how to attack these phases. We feel that better times are ahead. 
This year the State Department of Education has published an out- 
line for the study of state and local government prepared by Professor 
Orren C. Hormeli of Bowdoin College. This has been distributed 
throughout the state and this committee will urge its use. 

In the teaching of current events the work attempted is gratifying. 
Most of our schools, even the smallest, are trying to do something 
with it. The success of the course depends on the amount of time 
available and unfortunately our teachers are not able to give the time 
which is necessary for the best results. However, they are alive to the 
value of this work and a good start has been made. 

B. The Equipment: 

The text-books are in some cases old and unsatisfactory. How- 
ever, judging from the majority of cases, we believe that the teachers 
are selecting the best books available as fast as they are able to intro- 
duce new books. 

In our small schools there is very little additional equipment; in 
some cases, none. Our larger schools are well equipped. The main 
recommendations of this committee will be for better equipment. 

In conclusion, we wish to state that Maine began this year on an 
active campaign for better civics in the schools. In our state teachers' 
convention, the entire meeting of the principals and superintendents 
was given over to this problem and the matter occupied most of the 
time in the meeting of the teachers of history and civics. The State 
Department of Education is taking an active part as is shown by the 
outline which it has published. This committee will endeavor to 
send out soon a special letter to the schools of the state containing 
recommendations to meet our peculiar problems. 

Submitted by Fred D. Wish, Chairman. 



248 APPENDIX 

Maryland 

A. Elementary Schools: 

The elementary schools, as well as the high schools, in all the 
counties of Maryland follow the course of study laid down by the 
State Board of Education. This course of study contains an outline 
for the teaching of government, beginning with the first grade. The 
two subjects, history and government, are grouped together under the 
general head of conduct, and it is assumed that the two will be taught 
in a closely connected way throughout the seven years of the ele- 
mentary course. 1 A questionnaire relative to the use of the state 
course of study brought the following results: 

Replies were received from twelve of the twenty-three county 
superintendents of the state, and also from the superintendent of the 
Baltimore City Schools. 

Two of the twelve county superintendents heard from, failed to 
reply as to the use of the state course, and one expressly asked to be 
excused from giving an opinion on any of the points included in the 
questionnaire. Three were decidedly of the opinion that the course 
was not practicable for the country schools, and two of these gave a 
negative answer also, in regard to the town schools. The third thought 
it practicable for the upper grades of the town schools. Two admitted 
that the plan was followed only to a limited extent in both their 
country and their town schools. Of the remaining four, one con- 
siders the course impracticable for the lower grades in both country 
and town schools; another answers that "it depends on the teacher in 
both rural and town schools/ ' and says that little is done in the lower 
grades in his schools; another replies, "I think it can be made prac- 
ticable in the country schools by correlating it with other subjects and 
I see no reason why it cannot be made entirely practicable for the 
town schools"; the last says, "The outline seems a little too full for 
the country schools, but seems well adapted to the town schools." 

In reply to the inquiry as to the extent to which the plan outlined in 
the course of study is actually carried out in (a) the country schools, 
and (b) the town schools, not one of the superintendents was able to 
say that the course was being closely followed in either class of schools 
in his county. The most of the replies indicate that very little is being 
done except in the higher grades. The principal reasons given for the 
failure of the country schools to carry out the course as laid down are: 

1 For a copy of this outline write to the State Board of Education. 



APPENDIX 249 

(1) lack of time; (2) poorly-trained teachers; (3) too many women 
teachers. 

The superintendents are practically unanimous in saying that the 
main emphasis should be placed upon the duties and obligations of 
citizens and community functions rather than upon the organization 
and operation of government. 

B. Secondary Schools: 

There are twenty-nine high schools of the first group (four-year 
course) and thirty-six of the second group (three-year course). Replies 
to the questionnaire have been received from eleven high schools of 
the first group, and from ten of the second group. These schools 
represent fourteen counties of the twenty-three in our state. Replies 
were also received from one of the Baltimore city high schools, 1 and 
from the state normal school in Baltimore. 

The course of study laid down for high schools of the first group by 
the State Board of Education prescribes a course in civics and United 
States history for all pupils of the fourth-year class. Four to five 
periods a week throughout the year are required, the principal having 
the option of combining the history and civics, or of taking them up 
separately, devoting one-half of the year to each. The majority of 
schools reporting combine civics with history. In the second group 
schools there is less uniformity of procedure, but apparently a fair 
amount of time is being given to the subject, 

Again the text-books used are Phillips' Nation and State, Dole's 
Civics, Guitteau's Government and Politics in the United States, 
Boynton's Civics, Fiske's Civil Government, and Steiner's Institutions 
and Constitution of Maryland. Among those used for supplementary 
purposes are Ashley's American Government, James and Sanford's 
Government in State and Nation, Bryce's American Commonwealth, 
and some of the texts already named. 

It is generally agreed that the time devoted to civics in our high 
schools should be greatly increased. Some think that the present 
allotment should be doubled; others, that it should be increased to an 
even greater extent. Several of our most progressive principals sug- 
gest cutting down the amount of time devoted to foreign languages 
and mathematics in order to find time and place for the increase. 
It is the opinion of your committee that the greatest defect in our 
course is the fact that the instruction in civics is relegated to the last 

1 Baltimore has a school system independent of State Board of Educa- 
tion. 



250 APPENDIX 

year of the course. As probably not more than twenty per cent of the 
pupils who enter our high schools remain until the fourth year, it will 
readily be seen that some change should be made that will open up the 
instruction in civics to the great mass of our pupils. This, we believe, 
can be done by cutting down the required work in foreign languages 
and mathematics and giving at least two periods per week in civics 
to all first year pupils. 

In most of our schools the greater part of the time allotted to civics 
is given to national government, and the procedure is from national to 
state and local. A great many of the teachers seem to realize that 
they are wrong on both these points, some placing the blame upon the 
text-books, others, upon the supervisors. 

In many of our schools the main emphasis in teaching civics is still 
placed upon the organization and operation of government rather 
than upon the duties and obligations of citizens and community 
functions. Yet most of our teachers seem to feel that the latter is the 
proper aim and are striving to adapt their instruction to that end as 
rapidly as possible. 

With regard to the use of special devices to supplement their formal 
instruction, our civics teachers seem to be encouragingly progressive. 
Many use the civics scrap book and a regular drill in current events. 
A number have debates on political issues, which are used as a means 
of correlating civics and oral English. Almost all have non-partisan 
periodicals for the use of their pupils. The Outlook, The Independent, 
Current Events, and the Literary Digest are the ones most commonly 
used. In one or two schools public officials frequently make addresses 
to civics classes concerning applied politics. In several of our schools 
the civics classes visit court houses and city council chambers. 

In but few of our schools is local government made a subject of 
personal field investigation by the pupils, nor is much done in the way 
of studying annual appropriation bills, health reports, etc. Little is 
done in making surveys. Your committee is of the opinion that at the 
present time work of this kind cannot be done to advantage by our 
high school pupils. 

Systems of student self-government seem to have been but little 
tried in our state. One of our principals, who has had experience in 
other states, expresses the opinion that the School City is usually a 
failure. Only one principal expresses a favorable opinion on this sub- 
ject, and it is interesting to observe that this teacher is a very young 
man and of limited experience. 

In regard to what should be the aim of instruction in civics in sec- 



APPENDIX 251 

ondary schools, our teachers are generally agreed that the main 
object should be training in the duties of citizenship, rather than a 
knowledge of the dry facts and technical details of our system of 
government. They also agree that civics should occupy a more 
prominent place in the curriculum. Very few consider our present 
course adequate for giving our pupils the proper training in citizenship. 
Practically all think that our greatest need in order to improve our 
work is an increased allotment of time. 

Generally speaking, our instructors in civics may be said to be 
reasonably well qualified. Most of them are college graduates who 
have specialized in history and government, and a number have 
taken advanced work, as a rule, at summer sessions at the great 
universities. 

In only five towns out of the twenty-one from which we have heard 
is any kind of cooperation reported as existing between the school and 
civic or commercial organizations. In two towns there are women's 
civic leagues which have cooperated with the school authorities in 
improving conditions. 

Instruction in the Baltimore high schools is similar to that of our 
first group high schools. In the Baltimore state normal school more 
time is given to the subject than in our first group high schools, and 
the work seems to be done in a much more effective way. Forman's 
Advanced Civics is the text used, and Hart is employed for supple- 
mentary purposes. The method of procedure is from local to state 
and national, and the main emphasis is placed upon the duties and 
obligations of citizens and community functions. 

Submitted by C. H. Kolb, Chairman. 

Massachusetts 

Questionnaire sent to Answers received 
Public high schools 258 141 

Private high schools 7 2 

Private schools (boys) 39 22 

Private schools (girls) 36 14 

Private schools (coeducational) 6 4 



Schools reporting no courses given: 

Elementary private schools 5 

Public high schools 5 

Advanced private schools 6 



346 183 



252 APPENDIX 

Answers to Questions: 

i. What courses in civics are given in the elementary grades? 

No answer 44 

Yes 33 

None in school 57 

With United States history 14 

With general courses 5 

No grades in school 6 

The 7th, 8th and 9th grades are specified. The 9th or last year 

of elementary work usually has the preference. 

2. What courses in civics are given in the first two years of the high 

or preparatory school? 
None 75 

Yes 9 

Community civics 62 

With American history 10 
Usually for one-half year or twenty weeks. The courses range 
from five hours a week for the year to three hours a week for 
the half year. 

3. In the second two years of the same? 

None 18 

Yes 32 

Advanced civics 26 

With United States history 76 

College preparation 4 

General courses 7 

i. e., economics, current events, informal talks, etc. 
Usually found in fourth year and as a half course. 

4. Do you distinguish between the framework of government and the 

community or social civics which treats of the functions of gov- 
ernment? 

Yes 103 

No 13 

No answer 14 

Both treated 22 

Framework only 3 

Community civics only 2 

Usually find first two years devoted to community civics and last 
two devoted to the framework. 

5. What books are in use? State title and author. 

None 13 



APPENDIX 253 

Dunn — Community and the Citizen 64 

Guitteau — Government and Politics in U. S. 34 

Fiske — Civil Government 33 

Ashley — American Government 2$ 

Boynton — School Civics 12 

James and Sanford — Government in State and Nation 10 

Martin — Elements of Civil Government 10 

Garner — Government of the United States 8 

Nida — City, State, and Nation 6 

Beard — American Citizenship 6 

Guitteau — Preparing for Citizenship 5 

Forman — Advanced Civics 4 

American Republic 3 

Elementary Civics 2 
A few others are mentioned once or twice. 

Periodicals: 

Survey, Literary Digest, Outlook, Independent, Review of Re- 
views. 

6. What form of syllabus is used? 

No answer 41 

None 43 

Bulletin No. 23 U. S. Department Education 35 

Teachers' own 22 

New England History Teachers' Association 8 

Found in text-book 6 
Others mentioned at least once: 
Hill, Butler, Hart, consular reports. 

7. What methods of instruction are employed? 

No answer 34 

Text and recitations 56 

Local investigation, trips, reports 75 

Collateral reading 13 

Discussion on practical subjects 32 

Notebooks compiled from reports and newspapers, etc. 1 1 

Debates and forum 1 1 

Topical assignments 10 

Lectures by public men 1 1 

Informal talks to school 7 

Magazine assignments and discussion 6 

Laboratory method 6 



254 APPENDIX 

Current events discussed 5 

Self-governing organizations 3 

Cooperation with English department 1 

Cooperation with town departments 1 

8. Are the teachers required to have any preparation for this work? 

No answer 18 

None required 50 

Preparation required (not specified) 51 

General preparation 23 

College preparation 5 

Wide preparation 4 

Assumed 3 

9. What suggestions or recommendations would you make for broad- 

ening the usefulness of this subject? 
None, 73 

Closer to community life. 

Marked emphasis on personal citizenship and its obligations. 
Personal service and observation. 
Compulsory attendance at town meetings, courts, etc. 
Sense of responsibility encouraged. 
More emphasis for those who do not attend college. 
Clearing house in state for distribution of information. 
Added enthusiasm of teacher. 
Begin in elementary school and continue to grave. 
More conferences for teachers of the subject. 
Required in every high school. 
Increase to full college entrance unit. 
More trained teachers. 

More college courses for training of teachers. 
Extended use of public night schools in citizenship. 
Live teachers — less text-book. 
More text-book. 

Extended use of Bulletin No. 23. 
Text-book based on Bulletin No. 23. 
Increased sources of information. 
Extended use of survey of conditions. 
More laboratory work. 
More home discussion. 
Self-government in every school. 
Explanatory speeches by officials of the town or city. 
More time, broader scope, larger emphasis, compulsory, etc. 






APPENDIX 255 

Correlate with other subjects. 
Less technical language. 
Text-books to fit local conditions. 
Protection of teachers from political pressure. 
More emphasis on economics or sociology. 
Remove it from lower grades in small schools in country dis- 
tricts. 
Colleges demand framework — schools teach social aspect. 

Submitted by E. W. Cottrell, State Representative. 

Michigan 

Twenty-eight schools reporting. 

Number enrolled in these schools 12,782. 

In what year of school is government taught? 

Twenty-five teach civics in the fourth year of high school. 

One in the second year. 

One in the third year. 

One in the third or fourth year. 
Number of hours per week: 

One reports eight hours per week. 

Twenty-four report five hours per week. 

Two report four hours. 

One three hours. 
Number of weeks in the course: 

Two report six weeks. 

Two " ten weeks. 

Four " twelve weeks. 

One " fourteen weeks. 

One " sixteen weeks. 

One " nineteen weeks. 

Seven " twenty weeks. 

One " thirty-two weeks. 

Five " thirty-eight weeks. 

Three " forty weeks. 

One " forty-eight weeks. 
It is difficult to draw conclusions from the above report on the number 

of weeks in the courses as there was some confusion in regard to 

what was meant by a separate or combined course. I think that 

some of the longer courses include the whole course where two 

terms were given to history and then one term devoted to civics 



256 APPENDIX 

alone. Some called such an arrangement a combined history 

and civics course. 
Is government required or elective? 

Twelve report required with an enrollment of 907 in classes now. 

Eleven report elective with an enrollment of 362 in classes now. 

Total enrollment of those in classes now 1,269, five schools do not 
report on this point. 
Is the course in civics separate or combined with history? 

Nine report that the course is separate. 

Twenty-one report that the course is combined with history. 
What text-book do you use, if any? 

One reports Forman, Advanced Civics. 

Two report Forman, The American Republic. 

Two report Garner, Government in the United States. 

Nine report Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United 
States. 

One reports Hinsdale, American Government. 

One reports Haskins, American Government. 

Seven report James and Sanford, Government in State and Na- 
tion. 

Seven report that they do not use a text-book. 
One school gives a course entirely different from the rest. Detroit 
Central High School devotes its whole twenty weeks of government to 
the study of city problems. No national or state civics are taught, 
and but two weeks to the organization of the city government and all 
the rest to city problems. 
What are the supplementary books used? Among those in use are: 

Ashley, American Government. 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Forman, Advanced American Government. 

Garner, Government in the United States. 

Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States. 

Haskins, American Government. 
What are the principal defects in the present text-books? 

Six report that they are not practical enough. Too much theory 
of government. 

Five report that they are dead and formal. 

Four report that there is too little local government. 

Three report that there is not enough about present-day problems, 
social and economic. 

Two report that they are not accurate. 






APPENDIX 257 

Two report that there is much detail about the government, but 
not enough about the workings of the government as a whole. 

Two report that they are very satisfactory. There are many 
excellent texts. 

One reports that they are not scholarly. They make a cheap bid 
for popularity. 

One, not up to date. 

One, not "dynamic," whatever that may mean. 

One, indefinite, language hard for the students to understand. 
I notice some tendency for teachers to be influenced by the par- 
ticular book they are using. If they like it, all books seem good, 
if not, civics text-books are pretty bad. 

Does government get a fair allotment of time compared with other 
studies? 

Four said it does. 

One said it depended on the teacher. 

Twenty said it does not. 

Three did not report on this point. 
Time allotment for different phases of civics. 

In combining the answers to this question I find that national gov- 
ernment gets almost half the time, state and local government, the 
other half. 
What devices are used to supplement regular text-book work? 

Ten form a civic scrap book. 

Twenty-two have a weekly drill in current events, one has a 
monthly drill and one, a daily drill in current events. 

Twenty-three have debates on political issues. 

Nineteen have classes read non-partisan periodicals. 

Fifteen have talks to classes by public officials. 

Fourteen visit court houses and city officers with classes. 

Two have mock city councils. 

One has a mock court. 

Two have a mock senate. 

Two have mock elections. 

Two watch the enforcement of law in the city. 
One each of the following: 

Visits to state legislature. 

Visits to board of education. 

Student house of representatives. 

Separate class in magazine reading. 

Good citizenship league. 



258 APPENDIX 

Names of periodicals used in classes: 
One uses Current Opinion. 
Seven, The Independent. 
Eight, The Literary Digest. 
One, The New York Evening Post. 
Three, The Outlook. 
One, The Survey. 
One, World's Work. 
Preparation for teaching government. 
Schools Attended: 
University of Michigan, fourteen. 
University of Wisconsin, one. 
Olivet College, four. 
Normal College, Ypsilanti, two. 
University of Alabama, one. 
Teachers' College, Columbia, two. ; 
University of Illinois, one. 
University of Chicago, one. 
Hillsdale College, Michigan, one. 
Vassar College, one. 
Degrees secured: 
Four, A. M. 
Thirteen, A. B. 
Two, Ph. B. 
One, M. S. 
One, B. S. 
One, LL. B. 
One, B. L. 
Twenty-three out of twenty-eight have degrees from colleges or 

universities and of these, six have degrees in advance of the 

bachelor's degree. 
Of these, seventeen have specialized in history and government; 

one each in history and English; German and history; law; 

science; English and history. 

Submitted by Carl E. Pray, State Representative. 

New Hampshire 
A. Elementary Schools: 

I. The state department is now at work upon a new elementary 
program which will be issued some time this year. 

II. The elementary schools of the state pay special attention to 



APPENDIX 259 

civics in the eighth grade, The study of the Constitution of New 
Hampshire is obligatory. Other topics covered are: 

1. The Constitution and Government of the United States. This 
includes the work of the great departments. 

2. Government of New Hampshire. Work in agriculture, forestry, 
education, etc. 

3. Local Government. Administration of town or city in which the 
pupil lives. 

4. Civics of the schoolroom, building, and playground. 

5. Civics of the family. The personal virtues. 

B. Secondary Schools: 

1. The state course of study as prepared by the State Department 
of Public Instruction is used by the majority of the secondary schools. 
The course is known as the Constitutional History of the United 
States. All Seniors are required to take the course for the entire year, 
four periods per week of at least forty minutes each. 

Various additional lines of study are employed to give special 
interest and instruction to particular topics, as: — 

Class organization into house of Congress or state legislatures or 
town meetings where the actual workings of these bodies are par- 
ticipated in by the entire class, bills are passed or deliberated upon. 

Debates on current events. 

The local city government is dramatized in each school and local 
conditions discussed. 

Courts are organized and trials conducted. 

Athletic organizations and other school societies are taught to 
conduct their elections upon the basis of a political campaign. 

Field work includes visits to city and town offices, consultation of 
records; attendance at municipal meetings. 

Library instruction is gained through constant study of topics for 
investigation by individuals with reports both oral and written. 

Emphasis is laid upon the ability of each pupil to stand and speak 
fluently upon all topics under discussion. 

C. Normal Schools: 

Neither of the schools offers a distinct course in civics. The state 
program is followed, and the prospective teachers are taught to use 
it in the practice schools. 

Submitted by Guy E. Speare, Chairman. 



260 APPENDIX 

New York 
i. Course of Study: 

In New York state the civics course is combined with American 
history in the fourth year of high school. Together they get 38 weeks, 
in some schools of four periods, in most of five. Of this time, in prac- 
tically every school less than 30% is given to civics alone, partly be- 
cause in the examination most weight has generally been given to 
history. One might add, too, most teachers flounder when they get 
beyond the rule of a compendious text-book, and limit the subject 
to the material that demands of them the least physical and mental 
exertion. Naturally that material is text-book material. 

2. (a) Text-books: 

Without setting down a compilation more valuable for advertising 
purposes than for real enlightenment on the respective merit of the 
text-books, we may say that chief mention was made of Guitteau, 
Ashley, Forman, James and Sanford, Garner, Boynton, Hoxie and 
Sullivan, the last three dealing especially with New York state. 

(b) Supplementary Works: 

Congressional Record, City Record, Bryce, Beard — American Gov- 
ernment and Politics, Beard — Readings in American Government and 
Politics, Reinsch — Readings, Kaye — Readings, several numbers of 
the Brooklyn Eagle library including the City Charters, Tenement 
House Laws, etc., Federal documents such as the Year Book of the 
Department of Agriculture, Almanacs (for statistical abstracts), 
state documents, publications of city departments, etc. The Munici- 
pal Year Book of New York City for 191 2 is often mentioned. That 
of 191 5, just out, is far better, and will probably be used extensively. 
Such magazines as The Outlook, Literary Digest, etc., were often 
spoken of, and more rarely newspapers. Proceedings of legislative 
bodies were also listed. 

3. Defects of Text-books: 

As to the faults of text-books several teachers called attention to 
their emphasis on the organization rather than on the operations of 
government. Some stated that " they lack an interesting presentation 
of the subject " but neglected to say in what respect. One might 
deduce from other answers that this was due to the purely bookish 
character of the presentation, which failed to set problems, the great- 
est aid to interest. It is objected that text-books lay stress on ma- 



APPENDIX 261 

chinery rather than functions; that they lack concrete illustration as 
to the actual work done by various officials. In fact the feeling seems 
to be that the text-book makers are in the conspiracy to render 
government "invisible" — certainly opaque. 

4. Distribution of Time to National, State and Local Government: 
The answers here were few and disappointing. In the main the pre- 
ponderance of time was given to national government, although some 
regret was expressed that more could not be spent on locaL The 
average proportion of time was 20 periods to federal government, 
20 to state, and 10 to local, with the understanding that a good deal 
of federal civics had been taught along the way with American history. 

5. Order of Procedure: 

The majority began with local government, although the order was 
sometimes varied to fit the text-books. The syllabus for New York 
state suggests going from local through state to federal. Yet one of 
our best text-books on state and local government proceeds from 
state to local, with gratifying results. 

On the whole the answer seems to be that the order should be 
natural, proceeding from the material and not the text-book. Chap- 
ters for a good text-book can make any order logical. For if instruc- 
tion is only from a text-book how is local government any nearer 
than national? 

Let us assume, however, that we do really objective teaching — - 
that we treat the text as a manual for occasional reference on the 
forms of government, so that the pupil can organize his real data — 
the road he sees being built or the quarantine sign on the door or the 
notice of the sheriff's sale on the telegraph-pole, then the thing he 
sees first, probably facts of local government, will furnish his best 
point of approach to his new subject. 

6. Devices to Supplement Civics Teaching, such as: 

(a) A civics scrap book. 

(b) Weekly drill in current events. 

(c) Debates on political issues. 

(d). Reading of a non-partisan periodical by class. 

(e) Talks to classes by public officials concerning applied poli- 
tics. 

(f) Mention any other devices used to supplement formal in- 
struction in classes. 



262 APPENDIX 

(a) Several answered yes — composed of clippings (filibustering, 
home rule in cities), of accounts of visits to public institutions, and of 
study of budget reports, etc. 

(b) Often engaged in — but not in any formal way. 

(c) Generally done, although it would seem that this work should be 
standardized in cooperation with the English department, which 
emphasizes argumentation in the year civics is studied. In one school 
it was the custom for the civics teacher to supervise the compilation 
of material for debates, giving credit for it, whereas the English de- 
partment rated it on form and style. 

(d) Gratifyingly the rule. Many of these have been named in an- 
swer to (2). One might suggest that newspapers deserve a better trial 
than they have received. These are, if you rule out inspired articles 
and editorials, and accept press reports, real sources on civil govern- 
ment, and the political guide of the average voter. One teacher used 
them, explaining how his first attempt to distinguish obiter dicta 
from real news was most satisfactory in that the same article was pre- 
sented from three papers of widely different attitudes on every ques- 
tion. 

(e) Occasional. In New York City the pupils are addressed by 
public officials from the health and police departments to inspire 
them with a spirit of cooperation and helpfulness to those special de- 
partments. 

(f) Bulletin boards, visits to courts, addresses by students in as- 
sembly, use of ballots and other illustrative material in c 7 ass. 

7. Personal Field Investigation , Surveys and Study of Annual Reports. 
The answer in this case was on the whole negative with respect to 

field work. The city schools do, however, study the budget and many 
public documents. The work evidently fails because it is not syste- 
matic. Civic publications are not used enough when we consider their 
accessibility and value. The problem of city planning is touched on 
by some. Others require a comparison of receipts and expenditures 
for local state and federal government, and with a justification or the 
reverse of the relative amounts spent. 

8. System of Student Self-government: 

In secondary schools there is little of self-government and no in- 
stance of its thorough application. Yet every school in New York 
City has some form of it. In one at least they use a system of class 
captains or monitors with good results. In every one there is some 



APPENDIX 263 

form of general organization, with a supervising board largely repre- 
sentative, which is elected under regular forms. Formal self-govern- 
ment is treated -with suspicion. 

9. Special Preparation to Teach Civics: 

In the larger cities, especially New York, special training seems to 
be the rule. In smaller communities most of the teachers have civics 
because they "fell into it" as the tag end of a mixed program. Even 
in normal schools civics is often taught by a German or mathematics 
teacher, who is hired for his ability to teach these subjects, and takes 
civics because there is not enough in his chosen field to keep him busy. 

10. General Conclusions of the Committee: 

It is not so much a syllabus that is needed as a method. The prob- 
lem differs in states, cities and even wards of a city, and the material 
at hand is in every case the proper material, if the knowledge to be 
gained is to be actual and character forming. It is our business to 
take this accessible material and bring it before the pupil, that by 
concrete instruction and experience he may, through greater interest, 
learn better and perhaps learn more. 

As for our opinion on the questionnaires, we stand united on all 
except order of procedure and the question of a separate course. Our 
opinions on these important questions are: On order of procedure there 
was a close division as to whether we had better start with state or 
federal government. It was decided that wherever it should be pos- 
sible to get 100 periods of American history and 100 periods of civics, 
with separate examinations, we should start with state civics but in 
case we do not get this arrangement, we should start with the national 
government. In most schools in the first term of the senior year, 
American history is taught down to 1865. At the beginning of the 
second term the history is concluded and civics at once started. It 
seems natural to take national government in that event first since 
the pupil has just been studying its history. But in case the civics 
course is to be distinct from history, the order should be state, local 
and national since the state is the source of all local authority and we 
must derive local functions from delegation on the part of the state. 
Since we are agreed that a brief study of the outline of the organiza- 
tion of government and a consideration of some of its underlying 
principles should be given to the pupil to make his work on the details 
of functions coherent and intelligible, we decided that state must pre- 
cede- local in any event. 

We voted for 100 periods of each with distinct examinations. We 



264 APPENDIX 

felt that since a good deal of history since 1900 is incidental to civics, 
the history could be covered in 100 periods. 

We wish to recommend in the main the New England syllabus with 
modifications we will suggest later. 

Submitted by Wm. W. Rogers, Chairman. 

North Dakota 

1. Practically all schools follow the state high school manual and the 

requirement of the State Board of Education, 5 hrs., 18 wks., 
fourth year required of Seniors. 

2. (a) Text — Boyle, James E., Government in North Dakota, almost 

exclusively. 

3. Criticisms of Text — Out of touch with life as a boy sees it; local 

government overlooked. 

4. Order of Procedure — National to state and local, following text: 

Session of Congress or legislature influences the order. 

5. Current Events are widely used and some periodical (Independent, 

Outlook, Review of Reviews, Current Events, — daily news- 
paper, etc.) is usually read. Officials address classes here and 
there. Sometimes reports of local officials are used and their 
meetings attended. Reports given in class by students. Talks 
by teacher on local subjects and notes taken on them. Debates 
are not used very widely. 

6. Practical devices and personal field investigation used only to a 

limited extent. 

7. Is present instruction regarded satisfactory? Yes. Many, how- 

ever, answer "No" because of inadequate correlation with life. 

8. Training of teachers. No special preparation generally. 

9. Cooperation with public officials and civic agencies. Half answer 

none; half answer that bankers, lawyers, etc., address the class 
in civics at times. 

Submitted by A. T. Vollweiler, Chairman. 

Ohio 
A. Elementary Schools: 

A state law requires the teaching of civics in the elementary schools 
in connection with United States history. In most schools, the pupils 
do not have a text-book in civics, but the instruction is given in con- 
nection with the work in history. 

In too many elementary schools, especially in the rural schools, the 



APPENDIX 265 

attention is given to a study of the Federal Constitution and the 
actual work done by the government, in the locality where the child 
lives is neglected. Very often the teachers of history have had little 
or no training in civics, and are not prepared to give it the attention it 
should have. In a graded school system teachers have more time and 
usually give more attention to it. 

The appearance of some elementary books dealing with the actual 
working of governments has called the attention of teachers to this 
phase of the work and they are giving instruction that will show much 
better results. Teachers are giving more time to the subject now, 
than formerly, so that there is an improvement in civics teaching, 
throughout the state. 

B. Secondary Schools — (a) Weak Points: 

1. In many secondary schools, the text-books in use are rather 
inadequate and often behind the march of governmental changes. 
It is necessary for text-books in civics to be revised every few years, 
and teachers and boards of education should see to it that up-to-date 
editions are in use. 

2. Not enough time is given to it. American history and civics 
make a year's work, and often almost all the time is used for the his- 
tory. It would be a better plan, if the course could be arranged so that 
a half year could be given to civics. 

3. There is too often a lack of supplementary material. Pupils 
do not have access to books other than their text-books, and no govern- 
ment reports and documents are provided for the pupils' use. Much 
supplementary material may be had at little cost, and teachers should 
attend to getting it for their classes. 

4. Too many teachers have not had the proper preparation for 
teaching civics well. In many small secondary schools, the teacher 
of civics must teach several other branches and cannot make the 
preparation necessary for the best teaching. It is sometimes shifted 
from one teacher to another. 

5. The course for the secondary schools is usually so arranged that 
civics comes in either the third or fourth year. Since so many pupils 
who enter the secondary schools never complete the course, it neces- 
sarily follows that many of them never get the work in civics. A par- 
tial solution of this problem would be to emphasize this subject to a 
greater degree in the elementary school. It might be taught earlier 
in the secondary school, but it seems best to have it come after the 
other work in history has been completed. 



266 APPENDIX 

6. In many schools the instruction is not closely enough connected 
with the actual working of the government. There are the local 
officers in every community, and pupils should be taught to under- 
stand the local government. Sometimes the instruction is carried on 
as if the government was a fixed thing and pupils do not understand 
that it is changing all the time. They should be shown how every 
citizen has a part in the management of affairs, and an earnest effort 
should be made to instill in the minds of pupils a high ideal of citizen- 
ship. 

(b) Strong Points: 

i. In many small secondary schools civics receives very little atten- 
tion, but in those of the best grade it is required for graduation. This 
recognizes its importance as a prominent factor in the education of the 
future citizen. It is usually taught in the last year and is combined with 
United States history. From one- third to one-half the time devoted 
to history and civics is given to the latter. 

2. Teachers generally make an effort to impress upon their pupils 
the responsibilities of citizenship. The attention of the pupil is called 
to many distinct acts, such as the work of the local, state, and na- 
tional officers in the community where the school is located, and he 
begins to realize that the life of the community in which he lives is 
very complex. In addition to this, teachers try to have pupils under- 
stand their relations to other members of society and their duties and 
responsibilities as citizens. 

3. In our better secondary schools teachers are trying to relate the 
actual working of governmental machinery and the theoretical dis- 
cussion of the text-book. They are doing this by using the reports of 
various commissions and officers, the Congressional Record, magazine 
articles, and newspapers. 

Submitted by L. O. Lantis, Chairman. 

Virginia 

A. Preparation of the Teachers of Civics: 

Three sources of information lay open to us, the report of the 
department of education, the catalogues of the colleges, and the re- 
plies to the questionnaire. All of the information in the possession of 
the department is embodied in its annual report for the year 1914- 
191 5. From this we learn that in the session 1914-1915 there were in 
the state 1,320 high school teachers. Of these, 630 — 48% — had at- 



APPENDIX 267 

tended a standard college two or more years. (" Standard' ' is used in 
contrast to the "Junior" college which is also recognized by the de- 
partment of education.) How many of the 630 "college trained 
teachers" had attended college two years, and how many three or 
four years, it was impossible to ascertain either from the report or 
from the department. All of the standard colleges except one offer 
one or more courses in political science. These courses are elective 
except in one college and are usually given in the junior or senior year. 
We may safely assume that of the 630 "college trained teachers" 
none who attended college two years only had taken any course in 
political science, and many of those who attended three or four years 
did not select it as one of their electives. And certainly some of those 
who did take political science are teaching other subjects and not 
civics. On the other hand, we have another source from which to draw 
our teachers. There were 118 graduates of normal schools teaching 
in the high schools in 1914-1915. Practically all of these had taken 
some work intended to fit them to teach civics. Though it is true of 
course, that not all of the 118 were teaching civics. 

As stated above, all of the standard colleges and universities of the 
state, except Virginia Polytechnic Institute offer one or more courses 
in political science. In one college only, is the course required. These 
courses as a rule are open to the objection — as far as the preparation of 
the teachers of civics is concerned — that they deal with the theory of 
government to the exclusion of the structure and the function of 
government. The four normal schools offer courses in civics and 
civics teaching which are required for those who are training to teach 
in the upper grammar grades or the high schools. The questionnaire 
replies are too indefinite to be used except to confirm the conclusion 
which the above facts seem to warrant, viz.: A large number, per- 
haps 50 per cent, of the teachers of civics in the high schools of the state 
have had no special preparation to fit them for their position. 

B. Text-Books and Syllabus: 

So far as we can learn there never has been any civics syllabus, 
outline, or other helpful material published in the state. The recent 
course of study for the high schools of Virginia contains the following 
statement for the guidance and help of the civics teachers. . . . 
"The study of civics is as far as possible to be correlated with the 
study of history, and civics should be taught, especially in its relation 
to citizenship. Local government, municipal government, state and 
federal government should be taken up in order. The proper study 



268 APPENDIX 

of the county or city as a unit of government will add greatly to the 
preparation for intelligent citizenship, . . ." p. 28. 

" With American history comes civics. If civics is taught in the first 
or second year Forman's Essentials in Civil Government is the text 
to be used, if in the third or fourth year Forman's Advanced Civ- 
ics," p. 29. The state reading course contains no book on its list 
of direct value to the teacher of civics. 

C. Time Allotment, etc: 

The state course of study requires that civics be taught in the last 
year of the high school in connection with American history. One 
hundred and eighty forty-minute periods are required for the two 
during the session. No provision is made as to the division of the 
time between the two. The replies to the questionnaire were com- 
paratively so few and of such an unsatisfactory nature that but little 
weight can be placed upon them. From the replies received we learn 
the time allotted civics varies from 36 to 90 periods per session. The 
replies were about evenly divided as to the sufficiency of the time 
allotment and the adequacy of the courses to train for citizenship. 
The only suggestion as to how. this training could be better given was 
that some work along this line should be undertaken in each grade 
beginning with the fourth grade and continuing throughout the high 
school. 

The order followed is usually that of the text, national, state, 
local. On the other hand, a large percentage follow the order, local, 
state, national. A very large percentage stress the duties of citizen- 
ship rather than the form or function of government, and with few 
exceptions some devices are employed to vitalize the subject such as 
debates, newspaper reports, discussions of current events, and local 
excursions. The replies to this question form the one bright spot 
upon a rather dull sky. 

Submitted by J. M. Lear, Chairman. 

Washington 
A. Normal Schools: 

There are three normal schools in this state, two of which report 
courses in civics. These courses are classified as of high school rank, 
and no courses are offered in the methods of teaching civics. The 
teachers who have charge of the work are well trained but not in this 
special line: the work is in the hands of women teachers who majored 
in English. Few devices, such as visiting court, civics scrap books, 



APPENDIX 269 

debates, talks by professional men, etc., are used in any. of the normal 
schools. Each school states definitely that the average teacher going 
out into the rural or graded work is not sufficiently prepared to teach 
the subject of government. The normal schools recommend the use 
of the combined American history and civics course for secondary 
schools and believe that a suitable book could and should be prepared 
for use in the grades. 

B. Civics in the Schools of Spokane, Seattle and Tacoma. 

1. Elementary Schools: 

In Spokane six weeks are given to the study of civics, the work being 
based on Reinsch's Civil Government. In Seattle and Tacoma in- 
struction in civics begins in the 6th grade. It is presented incident- 
ally in connection with a study of the history of the state of Wash- 
ington. From this time on local civics is emphasized, with the aim to 
create in the child a consciousness of his immediate social environ- 
ment. In the last half of the 8th grade a text is used, — Dunn, The 
Community and The Citizen. 

2. High Schools: 

In the high schools of Spokane a separate elective semester course in 
civics is offered in the second, third and fourth years. Formats 
American Republic is made the basis of the work, supplemented by 
the city charter, state constitution, and collateral reading. About 
one-third of the semester is devoted to a consideration of municipal 
and state government, and the development of the subject proceeds 
from national to state and local forms. The main emphasis in one high 
school is laid upon the organization and operation of government, in 
the other, upon the duties and obligations of citizens. 

The course in civics in Seattle and Tacoma is for one semester and 
is open to juniors and seniors. The class meets five times per week. 
A one semester course is offered in United States history. This course 
is separate from the civics and is not a prerequisite for the course in 
civics or vice versa. However, students that take the civics usually 
take the United States history also, because of the recommendation 
of the history faculty and the expressed preference of the University 
of Washington for United States history and civics as the year's his- 
tory required for entrance. In two out of six courses in Seattle civics 
is a required subject; in one out of four courses it is a required subject 
in Tacoma. 

In Seattle the text used is James and Sanford, Government in 



270 APPENDIX 

State and Nation. In Tacoma it is Guitteau, Government and Pol- 
itics in the United States. Supplementary to the text the following 
are reported as being used: Bryce, American Commonwealth; Haskins, 
American Government; Hart, Actual Government; Beard, American 
Government; Chandler, History of the State of Washington; the State 
Constitution and the City Charter. 

The unanimous opinion of the teachers is that one semester provides 
ample time for the teaching of civics as a separate course. The com- 
plaint is just as unanimous that civics is not required in all courses 
and that too few follow up the civics with the study of economics. 

The order of development is generally to proceed from local to state 
and national affairs. All of the teachers report an extensive use of 
periodical literature and the special devices to increase interest in 
current events and the practical obligations of citizenship. The prep- 
aration of the teachers in these schools is adequate and the work as a 
rule satisfactory. 

C. Town and Smaller City High Schools of Washington: 

The material in this report has been gathered from the replies to a 
questionnaire sent out to the accredited high schools of the state, 
outside of Seattle, Spokane, and Tacoma. Fifty-five replies have been 
received from high schools whose enrollment runs from thirty-five 
to nine hundred and fifty. 

The course in civics is a one semester course required of practically 
all students in the junior, or senior year, and alternates with a 
semester of American history. The course as offered follows closely 
the course as outlined in the State Manual, and is usually given in 
the second semester of each school year. The only variation from 
this plan that the replies to the questionnaire reveal is the one-year 
combined American history and civics course. 

A wide range of text-books is in use — Ashley leads with thirteen 
schools reporting its use, and Guitteau, Garner, Chandler and Forman 
follow in the order named. The new combined American history 
and civics by Professor West is receiving favorable comment and 
some use. As supplementary texts, a large number of books are in 
use, including Bryce, Ashley, Reinsch, Beard, Wilson, etc. 

Wide difference of opinion is found among the school men of the 
state as to whether a sufficient amount of time is now given to the 
study of civics. While twenty-two of those reporting desire a longer 
period of time in which to do justice to the subject, eleven others 
express the opinion that we now have enough time for the proper in- 



APPENDIX 271 

culcation of the ideas and ideals we desire to impress providing the 
time is properly used and the work vigorously prosecuted. 

In the relative amounts of time given to each division of the subject 
the standard seems to be to devote one-third of the time to each divi- 
sion. The most notable variation from this scheme is the giving of 
one-half of the time to the national government and one-fourth each 
to state and local government. Two schools report that one-half of 
the time is given to local government, and the other half divided 
between national and state. If error is made in this respect in Wash- 
ington, it is, we should say, in giving too much time to the national 
government and not enough to local government. 

Two-thirds of the schools report that they develop the government 
of the nation first, passing afterwards to the state and local govern- 
ments. 

Defects in Text-Books: 

The defect most often mentioned is that they do not cover state 
and community requirements, and from the nature of things that is 
impossible. A more just criticism is that they do not sufficiently em- 
phasize the duties of citizenship. Likewise the criticism is in most 
cases just that they do not discuss the newer forms of government, — 
commission form, etc. We are not as one in what constitutes the ideal 
text, for one teacher finds the text at fault in being too general, while 
another criticizes another text for giving too much attention to de- 
tails. In the same way, one teacher complains that the texts do not 
link the past to the present, while another declares the texts at fault 
for paying too much attention to the history of the institutions. A 
number complain that the texts in use are too technical and abstract, 
and give too much attention to form. Charges that the texts are not 
pedagogical, that they ought to present the fundamentals of ele- 
mentary law, and that they do not correlate the work with history, 
economics and other subjects, call attention to the difficulties of the 
book makers in pleasing all the teachers of the subject. The observa- 
tion of one superintendent so aptly covers our own impression of the 
matter that we are pleased to quote it. "There may be some defects, 
but the improvements in modern text-books on civics is so apparent 
that we ought to be satisfied for a time." 

Plan of Instruction in Government: 

Eight teachers of civics frankly state that their plan is to develop 
the organization of government and show how it works, while twenty- 



272 APPENDIX 

two others just as frankly declare that they plan for the training of 
their students in the duties and obligations of citizenship. Twelve 
teachers declare that their plan covers both sides of the question, and 
by developing the organization and operation of government, they 
seek to develop the sense of the responsibilities of citizenship. 

Aids in Teaching: 

In some twenty schools a civics scrap book is maintained, and in 
others a bulletin board in the class room gives opportunity to post 
clippings, pictures and other items of interest. Practically all the 
schools have frequent drill in current events, and since the State 
Department of Education organizes and carries through a very exten- 
sive series of inter-high-school debates, which are political or economic 
in nature, they also have frequent debates. Over half of the schools 
reporting have talks by people in authority. The use of magazines, 
of which the Digest leads, with the Independent, Outlook, Current 
Opinion and the Review of Reviews in order, is also reported. Several 
interesting special developments may be noted: trips or tours, classes 
organized as clubs or political bodies, research work and reports on 
special municipal topics, elections, etc. Through visits to courts, 
city halls, etc., and by interviews with officials, two-thirds of the 
schools are able to awake a large degree of interest in local affairs. 

Realization of Aims: 

Those who have made special preparation to teach this work have 
no hesitation in saying that it is the most important of the subjects 
in the high school curriculum, and others place it on a par with any 
of the other work. Few there are who do not feel that civics is essen- 
tial to the person of ordinary intelligence. Many of the teachers feel 
that the instruction in civics would be more far-reaching if it were 
better correlated with history, economics, English, and other high 
school subjects. In that way only can its academic flavor be lost and 
can it become a part of the life of the students. 

A considerable number of teachers believe that when the elementary 
work is well done we are realizing the aims of civics teaching in as 
large a measure as the immaturity of the pupils and the limited time 
at our disposal permit. On the other hand, a much larger number of 
teachers believe we are falling far short of our ideals. Several would 
like time to trace out some of the bearings of political action upon 
economic problems or sociology. Over and over, complaint is made 
that nothing can be done except to present the framework of govern- 



APPENDIX 273 

ment because the time allotment is so short. Others feel that the near- 
at-home problems have had no consideration, and the pupils are too 
immature to get the full significance of the work. 

D. Final Summary and Recommendations: 

1. Civics should be a required subject for graduation in every course 
in the high school. 

2. To provide training in citizenship for the great number of our 
high school students who attend high school only for one or two 
years, a course should be offered in the freshman or sophomore year. 
The subject-matter of this course should be largely sociological. If a 
separate course of this kind is impossible in any high school, then there 
could be substituted regular work in current history or current events, 
the material to be gathered from periodical literature and newspapers. 
Work of this kind could be done either in connection with the regular 
English or history courses in the freshman and sophomore years. 
Whether the course suggested were provided or the substitute, the 
object would be to awaken the students to a knowledge of and an in- 
terest in the social life and problems of their own time. We need to 
vitalize the work for the girls to the end that they may be as in- 
telligently trained for the suffrage as the boys. 

3. The subject-matter of civics as now taught in the third or fourth 
year of high school should include more of the practice and less of the 
theory of government. It should emphasize what a citizen can do and 
how he can do it. There should be a well defined plan for the study of 
present day problems. Local government and the problems of the 
students' immediate social environment should receive more attention. 

4. Along with a change in subject-matter there should be a change 
in methods of instruction. A variety of devices should be resorted to 
in order to vitalize the subject and make it as far as possible experi- 
mental for each student. Such devices include scrap books, bulletin 
boards for the posting of clippings, talks to the class by local officers, 
visits to centres of community interest, debates, etc. The survey 
upon which this report and these recommendations are based shows 
that civics teachers are eager to avail themselves of such devices, but 
the crowded program of the rural and small town teacher leaves little 
time or opportunity for originality in methods of instruction. The 
way to help such teachers is to suggest such devices as have been 
found practicable and give full details for their use. 

5. The work in civics should be thoroughly standardized by the 
use of outlines, and, if necessary, by uniform examinations. 



274 APPENDIX 

6. The State Board of Education should provide at cost to the 
high schools of the state, a state manual. This manual should contain 
outlines and helps for the teaching of local and state civics. It should 
also contain portions of the State Constitution and a brief of State 
history. 

7. There should be full and adequate training in civics and in the 
teaching of civics provided in the normal schools of the state for all 
graded and rural teachers. Every teacher should have the prepara- 
tion to fit him to give instruction in citizenship and such instruction 
should be given in one way or another by every teacher. The fact 
that the teaching of civics is assigned to a particular teacher as a 
separate course, does not relieve other teachers from the responsibility 
of teaching citizenship any more than the fact that emphasis is placed 
on spelling and grammar in a particular division of the school dis- 
charges other teachers from giving attention to these subjects. Since 
the development of the "citizen spirit" is the great justification for 
devoting time to civics in the high school, we must secure teachers 
who have not only the facts of the subject, but also an ardor and 
" citizenship spirit" which are contagious. 1 

Submitted by A. C. Roberts, Chairman. 

West Virginia 

The greater number of our high schools follow the direction of our 
state manual as to the time given to the teaching of government, that 
is, they give one semester of the senior year to the subject of govern- 
ment exclusively. Five recitation periods per week are devoted to it 
for a period of eighteen weeks and one-half credit is granted for the 
completion of the work. There are variations, however, from the 
mean average as to time. In some of the smaller high schools, govern- 
ment as a specific subject is not taught at all, and in many of the larger 
ones a whole year is now devoted to it. The number of high schools 
which do not teach government as a specific subject of their pro- 
grams is very few, and the number of schools that are adding another 
half year is steadily increasing. 

The course in government is elective in some high schools, but in the 
majority of them it is regarded so highly as to be a required subject. 

1 The committee also submitted a suggested plan of course for the elemen- 
tary school, junior high school and fourth year high school. As the essential 
features of this plan are embodied in the recommendations of the Committee 
of Seven (pp. 78-1 n) it was thought unnecessary to include the plan here. 



APPENDIX 275 

The requirement for American history and government in the stronger 
high schools is almost as universal as the requirement for English. 
It is the opinion of most of those who answered our questionnaire 
that the subject of government is one of the most important and most 
practical that can be taught in a democratic republic. 

In schools which give a whole year to government, the first course is 
generally one in community civics, a course which lays emphasis upon 
local conditions and local government. This course is a new one and is 
not yet required to any great extent, although it is regarded as a very 
valuable addition to the program of studies. It is usually given in the 
first year with Dunn's Community Civics as a text, supplemented by a 
study of local conditions. 

The course in advanced civics is usually given in the fourth year, 
and consists of a study of our whole governmental system, local, state 
and national. This is the course that is generally required. In addi- 
tion to this course, economics is given in a few high schools as an 
elective subject. 

Forman's The American Republic is the favored text in West 
Virginia, since it is adopted by the state school book board. There are 
several high schools which by reason of the dense population of the 
community where they are located, are not bound by the action of the 
board. These schools have various texts: Forman's, Ashley's, Guit- 
teau's, Garner's, James and Sanford's, and Andrews's Manual of the 
Constitution. The one last named is used in a preparatory school, 
not a high school. One school reported no special text which of course 
means no special study of the subject. 

As to reference books, supplementary works, etc., many answered 
"too numerous to mention." Among those mentioned are Bryce's 
American Commonwealth, Beard's books on the subject, Fiske's 
Critical Period, Ashley's American Federal State, Taussig's Tariff 
History, Garner's Introduction to Political Science, various other 
texts on government, the Congressional Record, public documents, 
constitutions, treaties and current magazines. It seems that our first 
class high schools are well provided with reference books. 

Many and varied comments were made concerning defects in the 
text-books. Several of these follow. "The emphasis is wrongly 
placed, too much national and too little local." "Too much organiza- 
tion and operation, too little of duties and obligations of citizens." 
" Illogical arrangement, along with absence of clarification and of 
emphasis of fundamentals." "Too much theory." "They are not 
written for secondary work." "Too wordy and too abstract." "Too 



276 APPENDIX 

much form and not enough actual working." "Not up to date." 
"No supplement for the state government. " The last comment refers 
to the lack of any description of any sort of the government of the 
particular state in which the subject is taught. A few of those who 
answered said they were very well satisfied with their texts and 
thought there were several good texts in existence. 

The predominance of opinion on the question of extension of time 
for the subject is favorable to the increase. Two-thirds of the answers 
received indicated this opinion. Most of them favored extension of 
time to one full year for government alone. A few wanted one and 
one-half years for American history and government combined. 
Various suggestions were made to provide for this extension. One 
advised to drop English history; another, to shorten the time for 
ancient, mediaeval and modern history; others, to reduce the time for 
Latin, mathematics and possibly English; and still others, to lengthen 
the high school course. 

The majority of those answering the questionnaire agree that the 
proper procedure in the order of teaching the various divisions of the 
subject is from local, through state, to national, but there are several 
who still think that the reverse is the proper way. 

About two-thirds of the schools place the emphasis upon the duties 
and obligations of citizens rather than upon the organization and 
operation of the government. About one-third favor the reverse em- 
phasis. Although the theory of the first is more favored, the practice 
of the second seems the easier. 

Many devices to supplement the teaching are used in our high 
schools. About one-third of the schools which reported use a civics 
scrap book, and nearly all have drills on current events. Three-fourths 
of them have debates on political issues; one-half have talks by public 
officials concerning applied politics. Practically all have parallel read- 
ing. Other devices which were reported, but are not very widely 
used, are: the student legislature, holding of elections under the 
regular system, trials, special home survey and report of such sur- 
veys. 

Local government is made a subject of personal field investigation 
by the pupils in one-half of the schools reporting. The investigation 
generally takes the form of visits to officials at work and interviews. 
Inspection of actual conditions prevails in many schools, especially in 
the matters of health, sanitation, water supply, etc. This phase of 
the study of government has grown into actual cooperation with 
city officials in some cities for the purpose of accomplishing some es- 



APPENDIX 277 

pecially desired end, for instance, in the campaign for a new school 
bond issue in Huntington, West Virginia. The investigations are 
always followed by reports and papers, which of course compel or- 
ganization of material. 

The systems of student self-government in West Virginia high 
schools are practically negligible so far as number is concerned. There 
are only a very few and those are not reported as completely successful 
in any special way. This is comparatively a new thing here, and is 
now just being tried out for the first time in a few places. One school 
reported a school city plan of organization; another, an organization 
on state and national plan; one other, a student council; and still 
another, a student body association which took care of all matters of 
general interest to all the high school. No particular effect on dis- 
cipline is reported from any of these. Some thought a knowledge of 
parliamentary law was gained, a fact of no discriminating value, but 
none mentioned any appreciable effect upon civic relations. 

There were many answers to the question on the aim of instruction 
in government, but not all need be included in this report. A repre- 
sentative list of the answers, however, is necessary. The principal 
answers follow: "To train for intelligent citizenship." "To make ef- 
ficient citizens." "To acquaint with duties as citizens." "To teach 
practical problems of citizenship." "To familiarize pupils with our 
system, and to create a desire to be good citizens." "Right notions of 
conduct, clean politics, and willingness to support authority;" "To 
make plain to each that he is growing into citizenship and to instill 
into each the duties and privileges of a citizen." "To cultivate proper 
ideals of civic and social conduct and to inspire action toward the at- 
tainment or realization of the ideals." 

With reference to the relation of government to the other subjects 
of the secondary curriculum, the majority of answers indicated that 
it should be closely interwoven with history; that it should be cor- 
related with English, with economics and with science; and, that it 
should be required for one year. This is only the opinion of the ma- 
jority of those who answered the particular question. Most of the 
schools reporting did not answer the question. 

Upon the assumption that the aim of instruction in government is 
to train for citizenship, those reporting were asked whether they con- 
sidered their course adequate. About three-fourths of them answered 
in the negative and assigned various reasons, the chief of which was 
"not sufficient time." Other answers were: "not practical enough "; 
"does not furnish sufficient acquaintance "; "poor teaching "; "sub- 



278 APPENDIX 

ject-matter, notice, and aim are wrong." A few said that their course 
satisfied its object, and others added to that statement, "in conjunc- 
tion with history." 

As to special preparation for the teaching of government, the 
teachers of the subject in the schools reporting are about equally 
divided between "college graduates with special preparation," and 
"college graduates without special preparation." That special 
preparation has reference to subject-matter alone. There are ex- 
tremely few who are reported as having special pedagogical training 
as preparation. This lack is one of the great weaknesses in the matter 
of preparation to teach both subjects, history and government. Sev- 
eral of the teachers have received their preparation in West Virginia 
University, but the schools of political science in the University of 
Virginia, in Yale, and in Columbia have their representatives among 
the teachers of the subject in this state. 

The suggestions relative to ways and means of improvement in 
instruction in government are many. Among them are: "Text re- 
vision "; "Special preparation of teachers "; "Thorough drills on the 
text"; "Practical community work"; "Governmental organization 
in the high school "; "Better home training "; " Vitalization of teach- 
ing and showing the relation to life and public welfare "; "Careful in- 
troductory study in the grades"; "Lengthening of the term in the 
high school "; "General agreement on the work desired and the place 
to offer it "; "Connection with the N. E. A. committee on teaching of 
civics"; "Cooperation with our state university as to literature on 
the subject "; "A published list of available material and the places 
to get it "; and, "Cooperative work with community officers." 

Nearly half of the schools reporting announce no cooperation be- 
tween school, and civic or commercial organizations and local authori- 
ties. A few cooperate with officials in securing a certain end. Some 
have lectures from the officials, and in many places the pupils are 
assisted in their investigations, but only one school reports any as- 
sistance from a civic or commercial club. Many schools have in fact 
never asked for it. 

Our normal schools are doing nothing to prepare special teachers of 
civics. They spend most of their time and energy training grade 
teachers, and doing high school work. No special emphasis is given 
to the subject of government. What they give in that subject is 
about the same as is given in our high schools. 

No special syllabi were reported by the city superintendents of the 
state, who answered the request. The state manual is a guide, and 



APPENDIX 279 

teaching is largely text teaching, supplemented by a little local in- 
vestigation, by actual visits to officers and trials, public meetings, 
etc. 

Submitted by C. L. Broadwater, Chairman. 

Wisconsin 

1. We favor an outline of civics work for each of the eight grades 
below the high school, and in accord with the brief paragraph outline 
in your digest of the "Recommendation of Committee of Five of the 
American Political Science Association, 1908 " as to both elementary 
and high schools. In this connection, we wish to encourage the plan 
of teaching grade civics as community civics. All the work in civics 
should lead to a realization of the service of the individual as a part 
of the state. Emphasize the duties of citizens rather than the control 
of citizens under the laws of the state. Never to forget that the " whole 
is the sum of the parts " and in a democracy every individual has a 
part in determining the character of the state. 

2. Our views on what the course of study should be in the grades 
are fully exemplified in the course of study in Two Rivers, Wis., 
Indianapolis, Ind., New York City schools, and Superior, Wis. In 
all of these cities, the course provides something for each grade, and 
the point of view is the ideal one. 

3. In the high school, as I have said, we find ourselves in accord 
with the recommendation of the Political Science Association of 1908. 
We especially wish to emphasize that our committee is unanimous 
in favoring emphasis placed on town, county and state, rather than 
upon the national government, as is so frequently done. We do not 
sympathize with the plan of combining American history and civics 
in one year's course, as is done in many places. We do not agree 
with the report of the committee to the Wisconsin History Teachers' 
Association, which I inclose, and I may add, neither did the his- 
tory and civics teachers at the Association agree with the re- 
port. 

4. In connection with local civics in the high school, we recognize 
the handicap of lack of text-book material accessible to teachers and 
pupils. 

We heartily recommend the plan recently carried out by the 
teachers of the Rockford, 111., high school, and the Milwaukee high 
schools. Here the teachers have, in the absence of texts, written up 
their own outlines for their pupils. This can be done, in most cases, in 



280 APPENDIX 

a pamphlet of thirty or forty pages, and can be printed and sold to the 
pupils for five or ten cents. The result is a thorough treatment of 
local history and government. We recommend that at least two- 
thirds of the civics course be devoted to local and state government. 

Submitted by A. C. Shong, Chairman. 



INDEX 

Advanced civics in secondary schools, 46-76 

Alabama, report from, 231-233 

American government as the beginning course, 203-217 

Historical Association, n-16 

history and civil government, 3-5 

Political Science Association, 21-27 
Appendix, reports of state committees, 225-280 
Attendance in college courses, 190-192 

Bibliographical suggestions for teachers, 119-121 

for libraries and for reference, 1 21-133 
Bibliographies (arranged in alphabetical order), 111-133 
Bryce, James, danger in civics teaching, 32-33 

Bureau of education, questionnaire on instruction in secondary schools, 
46-50 
of reference on civic affairs, 133-134 

California, report from, 234-238 

Civics for the education of the electorate, 28-31 

for social service, 31-32 
Colleges and universities, report on instruction in, 135-224 
College instruction, observations and conclusions, 184-196 

function of, 187-190 
Colorado, report from, 238-239 

Committee of eight, American Historical Association, 13-14 
of five, American Historical Association, 14-16 
of five, American Political Science Association, 21-25 
of seven, American Historical Association, 12-13 
of seven, American Political Science Association, report in co- 
operation with Bureau of Education, 46-64 
on practical training for public service, 26-27 
on social studies, National Education Association, n 
Committees on municipal government, National Municipal League, 18-21 

. 281 



282 INDEX 

Community Civics 

what is, 83 
specific aims of, 83 
methods of teaching, 84-88; 95-99 
survey, 39-40 
Course of study for junior high school, 88-95 

for senior high school, 100-111 
Courses offered in colleges and universities, table of, 141-183 

Deductive method, 2-3 

Efforts to improve the teaching of government, 7-27 

Elementary course in representative colleges and universities, 207-217 

grades, suggestions for civic topics in, 78-83 
Emphasis in civic instruction, 55 

Field investigation and preparation of surveys, 56-57 

General conclusions on secondary instruction, 61-64 
George Junior Republic, 36 
Georgia Club, 37, 39 
Georgia, report from, 239-240 

Hall, G. Stanley, on teaching of civics, 31-32 
History Teachers' Associations, 16-17 
Home county club, 39 

Illinois, report from, 240-243 

Inadequate provisions for instruction in colleges, 184-187 

Iowa, report from, 244 

Junior high school, community civics for, 83 

Kentucky, report from, 244-246 

Madison conference on history, civil government and economics, 9 
Maine, report from, 246-247 
Maryland, report from, 248-251 
Massachusetts, report from, 251-255 
Methods of teaching, references on, 111-119 

materials and devices, 34-35 

of instruction for colleges, 193-194 
Michigan, report from, 255-258 



INDEX 283 

National Education Association, 8-1 1 

Municipal League, 18-21 
Newark plan, 37, 38 
New Hampshire, report from, 258-259 
New York, report from, 260-2^4 
Normal schools, training of teachers in, 65-74 
North Dakota, report from, 264 

Ohio, report from, 264-266 

Political science, definition of, 199-200 

relation to history, economics and sociology, 200-202 

Preparation of teachers, 58-59; 65-76 

Pupil participation in school management, 57-58 

Purpose of instruction in government, 27-28 

Questionnaire, of Bureau of Education on secondary instruction, 46-50 
on college instruction, 135-136 

Recent progress in the teaching of government, 1-45 
Recommendations for secondary instruction, 60-61 
for college instruction, 198-224 
Reference library on civic affairs, 40-42 

School city, 19, 36 

Smith, J. F., model lesson on country roads, 98-99 

Snedden, David, essence of civic education, 33 

Stages in the advancement of civic instruction, 1-6 

State and national government, 41-44 

State committees and state representatives, 226-231 

on the teaching of civics in elementary and secondary 
schools, 225-280 
Study of the constitution, 2 

Suggestions as to courses of study and methods of approach, 7 7-1 n 
for improvement, secondary instruction, 59-60 
college instruction, 196-198 
Supplementary books, 52 

Text-books, for college instruction, 192-193 
for elementary schools, 119 
for secondary instruction, 51-53, 119 



284 INDEX 

Thoroughness, 44-45 

Time given to civics, 50, 53-55 

Two Rivers plan, 37, 38 

Types of courses in political science, 195-196 

Use of devices to supplement instruction, 55-55 

Virginia, report from, 266-268 

Washington, report from, 268-274 
Ways of rendering instruction practical, 35-39 
West Virginia, report from, 274-279 
Winston-Salem junior civic league, 37 
Wisconsin, report from, 279-280 



Printed in the United States of America. 



npHE following pages contain advertisements of a 
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. 



American Government and Politics 

By CHARLES A. BEARD 

Associate Professor of Politics in Columbia University 
New York, 1910. New and Revised Edition, 1914. Reprinted, 191 5. 

Crown 8vo t 772 pages, $2.10 

This study of the history, forms, and practical 
workings of American government has established 
itself through wide and continued use as a very suc- 
cessful text for college courses. Equal space has 
been allotted to federal and state government, the 
latter heading including municipal and rural gov- 
ernment. Throughout the volume, emphasis is laid 
upon the evolution of political issues and the opera- 
tion of party machinery. In the revised edition 
Professor Beard has recorded the important changes 
of the last four years while eliminating many mat- 
ters of detail and purely local or temporary interest. 
The space thus gained has been utilized for the 
purpose of including summaries and discussing 
broad tendencies and general principles. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



The New American Government and Its Work 
By JAMES T. YOUNG 

Professor of Public Administration in the University of Pennsylvania 

Cloth, 8vo, $2.25 

This book, intended for that growing circle of readers 
who are interested not only in political form and structure, 
but also more especially in What the Government Is Doing 
and Why, is characterized by the following features : 

1. It places greater emphasis than usual on the Work of 
the government. 

2. It pays more attention to present problems, espe- 
cially to the Public Regulation of Business. 

3. It applies to every aspect of government the test of 
Results — whether the subject be the powers of the Presi- 
dent, the election laws, or the Sherman act — for the value 
f )i a court, a statute, or a political institution should be 
known by its output. 

4. It depicts the Government As It Is, and as it has 
developed. Our system is not a finished crystal, nor an 
ancient historical manuscript, but a growth. And it is 
still growing. 

5. It includes the interpretation of the Constitution and 
the chief "regulative laws, in the most recent Decisions of 
the Supreme Court. It is this that gives clear, definite 
meaning to the discussion of government forms and ac- 
tivities. 

6. It presents an Ideal. It does not hesitate to point 
out the moral defects, and the social cost of political weak- 
ness and inefficiency, but its Tone is Optimistic. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Comparative Free Government 

By JESSE MACY 

Professor Emeritus of Political Science, and 

JOHN W. GANNAWAY 

Professor of Political Science, in Grinnell College 

Crown 8vo, 754 pages, $2.25 

The United States is made the basis for this study be- 
cause it has been in fact the pioneer in securing world rec- 
ognition for free government, and it is the originator of 
the presidential type. The first part of "Comparative 
Free Government" is devoted to a somewhat detailed de- 
scription of the organization and processes of government 
in the United States, both state and national. The sec- 
ond part is devoted chiefly to a study of the cabinet type. 
England is given first place, as the originator of the sys- 
tem. France exemplifies most completely the continental 
cabinet system ; Germany is presented as illustrating the 
early states in cabinet development. Switzerland is de- 
scribed as a perfected democracy, which is neither cabinet 
nor presidential. Part three presents a brief comparative 
study of selected South American republics and smaller 
European states. The object of the book is to throw light 
upon the growth and perfection of free government in all 
states, rather than to make a general comparison of gov- 
ernmental institutions. It is particularly adapted to use as 
a textbook in college courses, and makes possible the giving 
of a first course of the type suggested in the report of the 
Committee of Seven on Instruction, published in the May 
issue of the American Political Science Review. The au- 
thors answer the Committee's question concerning the 
proper kind of basic course by advocating a combination 
of American and comparative government as the proper 
means of overcoming the " inordinate provincialism which 
has been one of the banes of our national life." 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork 



The Governments of Europe 

By FREDERIC AUSTIN OGG, Ph.D. 

Assistant Professor of Political Science in the University of Wisconsin 



New York, 191 3. Fourth Reprint, 191 5. 

8vo, 668 pages, $j.oo 

Of the thirty-four chapters in this volume on " The Gov- 
ernments of Europe/' eight are devoted to Great Britain, 
six to Germany, four to France, four to Austria-Hungary, 
three to Italy, two to Switzerland, and one each to Holland, 
Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Spain, and Portugal. 
The author has confined himself largely to a description of 
the governments of to-day, although he has given such 
brief accounts of the historical origin and development of 
the present constitutions as are necessary to enable the 
student to acquire a sound and comprehensive view of the 
organization and administration of the existing govern- 
ments. These historical portions are so arranged as to be 
readily omitted. So far as is possible in the limits of a 
single volume, the author has treated the federal, state, and 
local governments, the executive, legislative, and judicial 
branches thereof, and the organizations, doctrines, and 
workings of the political parties. Comparisons of the gov- 
ernments of the different countries have been made when 
and only when they will be found of real interest and value 
to the student. The book will be found especially adapted 
to use as a text in college courses on Comparative, Con- 
stitutional, or European Governments. 






THE macmillan company 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue Hew York 



The Government of American Cities 

By WILLIAM BENNETT MUNRO, Ph.D., LL.B. 

Professor of Municipal Government in Harvard University 

8vo, 415 pages, $2.00 

Recent strides in municipal government have 
necessitated extensive changes and additions to 
this standard text to bring it abreast of present- 
day progress. Its general character, however, re- 
mains the same, — to quote the author, "a descrip- 
tion of the machinery of city government in the 
United States," dealing with "government rather 
than administration, with the framework rather 
than with the functioning mechanism of the mu- 
nicipal organization." 

Professor Munro has not only brought census 
figures and other statistics up to date, but has 
added an important chapter on " The City Man- 
ager Plan" and expanded the chapter on "The 
City and the State " to include a discussion of 
the new optional charter laws in New York and 
Massachusetts. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Principles and Methods of 
Municipal Administration 

By WILLIAM BENNETT MUNRO 

8vo, 4gi pages, $2.2$ 

Professor Munro's new volume deals with the ac- 
tual administrative functions of the city, thus sup- 
plementing his earlier volumes on the structure 
of city government in Europe and America. It 
includes chapters on such important fields of day- 
to-day municipal work as city planning, street ad- 
ministration, water supply, sanitation, police, fire 
protection, public lighting, school management, and 
municipal finance. In each chapter there is a good 
deal more than a mere survey of the subject, yet 
everything is discussed in a non-technical way. The 
author's aim has been to show in an accurate and 
interesting way just how the city departments are 
organized for their work, what problems they have 
to face, and how they try to meet these problems. 
In a word, he deals very fully with what may be 
called the mechanics of present-day city govern- 
ment, and that is the phase of the subject which 
requires most attention to-day. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 










1 

1 



